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Indian Express
2 days ago
- Politics
- Indian Express
How did the Israel-Iran conflict escalate? A look from history to its impact
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on current issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week, we explain to you the Israel-Iran conflict through its history, recent escalation, and potential impact. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | RBI Explained – History, tools of monetary policy, and surplus transfer from the Indian Express, read it here. Thursday (June 19) marks the seventh day of Israel's offensive, which has targeted key nuclear and military sites like Natanz and Isfahan, killing top generals and scientists. Notably, on June 13, Israel launched airstrikes towards Iran, targeting multiple nuclear and military facilities, and killing several senior military officers and scientists under what Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called 'Operation Rising Lion'. Later, Iran launched waves of ballistic missiles towards Israel in retaliation. The Israeli offensive not only jeopardised the Iran nuclear talks but also heightened fears of a wider regional conflagration with serious implications. The latest flare-up in the Israel-Iran conflict could have serious consequences for the region and beyond. In this week's UPSC Issue at a Glance, we unpack this issue by tracing the history of Israel-Iran relations, the causes of recent escalation and the potential implications. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus General Studies-II: International Relations, Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India's interests. FYI: UPSC has previously asked questions on various regional connectivity projects; for instance, a question was asked on INSTC in prelims this year, and in prelims 2017, a question was asked on Chabahar port (do check it in the post-read questions); thus, it becomes essential to know about these projects.) Given the current state of conflict between Israel and Iran, people may easily overlook the years of cooperative relations between these two nations. Thus, knowing about the historical ties between Iran and Israel becomes essential. (i) Pre-1979 Iran-Israel ties: In 1948, the opposition of Arab states to Israel led to the first Arab-Israeli war. Iran was not a part of that conflict, and after Israel won, it established ties with the Jewish state. It was the second Muslim-majority country to do so after Turkey. In this phase of bilateral ties, as an analysis from the Brookings Institute ('Iran's revolution, 40 years on: Israel's reverse periphery doctrine') notes, Israel tried to counter the hostility of Arab states at the time with the 'periphery doctrine' under its first Prime Minister David Ben Gurion. The Pahlavi dynasty, under the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, ruled Iran then. It had US support, as did Israel, and the two countries maintained ties with each other, with Iran also selling oil to Israel amid its economic boycott by Arab states. (ii) The 1979 Revolution: In this phase, a religious state was established in Iran after the Shah was overthrown in the 1979 Islamic Revolution. The regime's view of Israel changed, and it was seen as an occupier of Palestinian land. Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini termed Israel 'Little Satan' and the United States the 'Great Satan', seeing the two as parties interfering in the region. Iran also sought to grow its presence in the region, challenging the two major powers Saudi Arabia and Israel – both of whom were US allies. (iii) Shadow War after 1979: After 1979, the ties between the countries worsened. While Israel and Iran have never engaged in direct military confrontation, both attempted to inflict damage on the other through proxies and limited strategic attacks. Israel has attacked Iranian nuclear facilities from time to time. In the early 2010s, it targeted several facilities and nuclear scientists in a bid to prevent it from developing nuclear weapons. In 2010, the US and Israel are believed to have developed Stuxnet, a malicious computer virus. Used to attack a uranium enrichment facility at Iran's Natanz nuclear site, it was the 'first publicly known cyberattack on industrial machinery', according to Reuters. According to Explained article on short history of Iran-Israel ties, 'Iran, meanwhile, is seen as responsible for funding and supporting several militant groups in the region that are anti-Israel and anti-US, such as Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in the Gaza Strip.' Iran and Israel have shared a long history of antagonism, starting post the 1979 revolution in Iran which removed the West-friendly Shah from power. Today, Iran does not recognise Israel's right to exist. On the other hand, Israel's controversial Begin doctrine has been a source of significant conflict – diplomatic and otherwise – between the two nations. The two countries have been engaged in multiple proxy conflicts, and actually came face to face during the 2006 Lebanon War. Over the years, the ties devolved with little trust on either side. Iran's support for Hamas and other Iran-backed regional actors, such as Hezbollah, especially after October 7, 2023, has drawn Israel's ire. Last year, the Israel-Iran relations worsened more when for the first time Iran launched a direct attack aimed at targets within Israel. Iran-Israel bilateral ties hit new lows when, on June 13 this year, Israel launched 'Operation Rising Lion' against Iran. Several factors have contributed to the recent escalation in the Israel-Iran conflict. Let's take a closer look. 1. 'Nuclear threat' to Israel: Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu framed the biggest attack on Iran in decades as an attempt to remove the 'nuclear threat' to Israel. Addressing the people of Iran in a video message, he said the time had come for them to stand up for their freedom from an 'evil and oppressive regime', which has 'never been weaker'. Further explaining Israel's 'pre-emptive strikes', Netanyahu said Iran had 'taken steps that it has never taken before… to weaponise enriched uranium,' and 'if not stopped, Iran could produce a nuclear weapon in a very short time,' perhaps even 'within a few months.' Notably, the great strategic concern in Israel is Iran possessing nuclear weapons, and to that end, it has previously launched attacks on scientists (although more targeted and tactical ones). Iran says it is not looking to develop weapons, and has simply invested in nuclear power over the decades. 2. IAEA's Board of Governors censured Iran: Friday's attacks came one day after the International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA) Board of Governors censured Iran for the first time in 20 years for not working with its inspectors. On Thursday ( June 12) IAEA passed a resolution declaring Iran as being non-compliant with its non-proliferation obligations. The resolution came on the back of a recent IAEA investigation that found Iran was conducting 'secret nuclear activities' at three locations. The Israel-Iran conflict triggered serious concern among major stakeholders in the region, including India. Some of the potential implications of escalated Iran-Israel conflict are: 1. Fears of surging oil prices: Just as global shipping lines and traders had started to breathe a sigh of relief from elevated freight rates, with vessels returning to the crucial Red Sea route from the longer Cape of Good Hope passage, a conflict between two major West Asian powers — Iran and Israel — has reignited fears of surging oil prices and more trade disruptions. Since the war began on June 13, global Brent crude prices have risen by around 11 per cent — from levels of $67.34 per barrel on June 12 to around $74.6 per barrel on Tuesday. This is a significant spike — and several global financial firms are projecting that oil could cross $100 per barrel in case the crisis continues and worsens. 2. Risk of wider energy disruption: Experts warn that Iran may respond by closing the strategic Strait of Hormuz — a key passage through which 20–25 per cent of global oil supply transits, as well as a critical corridor for LNG shipments from Qatar and the UAE. Qatar, notably, is among the top LNG suppliers to India. Ravi Dutta Mishra of The Indian Express explains, 'S&P Global noted that, so far, both Iran and Israel have avoided directly targeting energy infrastructure. However, Israel has temporarily shut its Leviathan gas field — a key supplier to Egypt and Jordan — as a precaution. Iran, meanwhile, reported no damage to its oil refineries or storage depots in the initial attacks. Iran possesses approximately 2.2 million b/d of crude refining capacity and an additional 600,000 b/d of condensate splitter capacity. In May, it produced about 4 million b/d of crude and condensate. According to S&P Global, Iran's crude exports could fall below 1.5 million b/d this month.' 3. Rising freight rates: With the escalation in Iran-Israel conflict, there is possibility that freight rates will increase. As Ravi Dutta Mishra of The Indian Express explains, 'Now, with traders' worst fears materialising, vessels may be forced to continue using the Cape of Good Hope route. This detour means sustained upward pressure on freight rates. The Red Sea crisis had already caused a spike in shipping costs due to voyage duration increasing by 10–14 days. Longer voyages also tightened vessel availability, exerting inflationary pressure on freight rates.' Beyond the above-written potential implications, there is a possibility that global governance would also be impacted by continuing instability in the Middle East. The Israel-Iran conflict triggered serious concern among major stakeholders in the region, including India. Indian Ministry of External Affairs spokesperson Randhir Jaiswal on Friday urged both Israel and Iran 'to avoid any escalatory steps,' saying India has 'close and friendly' relations with the two nations. Nonetheless, escalated Israel-Iran conflict puts India's regional connectivity strategy like the International North South Transport Corridor, and the Chabahar port at risk. Notably, The International North South Transport Corridor (INSTC), which was initiated by Russia, India, and Iran, is a multi-modal transportation project linking the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea via Iran, and onward to northern Europe via St Petersburg in Russia. This corridor aims to reduce transit times to about 25 days — 20 days fewer than the Suez Canal route — and cut freight costs by 30 per cent. The INSTC envisages the movement of goods from Mumbai to Bandar Abbas in Iran by sea; from Bandar Abbas to Bandar-e-Anzali, an Iranian port on the Caspian Sea, by road; from Bandar-e-Anzali to Astrakhan, a Caspian port in the Russian Federation by ship across the Caspian Sea; and onward to other parts of the Russian Federation and Europe by rail. Chabahar is a deep water port in Iran's Sistan-Baluchistan province. It is the Iranian port that is the closest to India, and is located in the open sea, providing easy and secure access for large cargo ships. The port is also part of the proposed INSTC. Chabahar is of strategic importance for India. It offers New Delhi an alternative route that bypasses Pakistan, which does not allow India land access for trade with Afghanistan and Central Asia. Beyond, regional connectivity projects, trade and commerce, energy imports, and Indian expatriates are other vital concerns for New Delhi. It also presents Inflation risk in India. As Ravi Dutta Mishra of The Indian Express explains, 'The renewed instability could pose deeper macroeconomic challenges for India, extending beyond trade, particularly as the country's reliance on oil imports continues to rise. While India was compelled to halt oil imports from Iran following US sanctions in 2019, Goldman Sachs estimates that Iranian supply could fall by 1.75 million barrels per day (b/d) for six months before gradually recovering.' Furthermore, a deepening Israel-Iran conflict might affect India's successful balancing of ties with Israel, Iran and the Gulf Arab states for the past decade. Prelims (1) To which country is the Pahlavi dynasty related? (a) Israel (b) Iran (c) Yemen (d) Palestine (2) The term 'two-state solution' is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of (UPSC CSE 2018) (a) China (b) Israel (c) Iraq (d) Yemen (3) What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India? ( UPSC CSE 2017) (a) India's trade with African countries will increase enormously. (b) India's relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened. (c) India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. (d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India. (4) India is one of the founding members of the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), a multimodal transportation corridor, which will connect: (UPSC CSE 2025) (a) India to Central Asia to Europe via Iran (b) India to Central Asia via China (c) India to South-East Asia through Bangladesh and Myanmar (d) India to Europe through Azerbaijan Mains 'India's relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.' Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2018) (Sources: Explained: A short history of Iran-Israel ties and why they soured after 1979, Iran blames Israel for Isfahan drone attack, Explained: What's happening in the latest Iran-Israel flare-up, in 5 points, Why the Iran-Israel war has not hit Indian markets, Trade to inflation, how Iran-Israel conflict may affect India, markets) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for May 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
Indian Express
12-06-2025
- Business
- Indian Express
RBI Explained – History, tools of monetary policy, and surplus transfer
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on current issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week we take you through the history, functions, monetary policy instruments and arrangements between the Reserve Bank of India and the government. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | India's Linguistic Landscape: From constitutional safeguards to endangered languages from the Indian Express, read it here. The Reserve Bank of India's six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) has slashed the repo rate by a bigger-than-expected 50 basis points to 5.50 per cent, marking the third consecutive reduction since February 2025. Additionally, the Board of the RBI on May 23 approved a record surplus transfer, or dividend, of Rs 2.69 lakh crore to the Central Government for the accounting year 2024-25. It followed a meeting of the central board of directors of the RBI on May 15. In this context, it becomes essential to know about the RBI and its monetary policy comprehensively and understand how the relationship between the RBI and the government has evolved in the backdrop of the transfer of the RBI's surplus. (Relevance: UPSC Examination General Studies-III: Current events of national and international importance, Indian economy and issues relating to planning, mobilisation of resources, growth, development and employment. Every aspect of the RBI, from its origin, structure, and key functions to its evolving policies, holds importance for UPSC CSE. Previously, several questions have been asked on this topic. This year's UPSC Prelims also had a question on the RBI's functions (do check it in the post-read questions), which presents the RBI as an evergreen topic in the economy section that aspirants must prepare comprehensively.) The Reserve Bank of India is a central bank of India. While central banks in developed countries can be traced as far back as the 17th century, among developing countries, the Reserve Bank of India, established on April 1, 1935, is one of the oldest such institutions. It was established in accordance with the provisions of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. The first Governor of the RBI was the Australian Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, one of the two managing governors of the Imperial Bank of India. Sir C. D. Deshmukh was the first Indian to become Governor of the RBI. The Central Office of the Reserve Bank was initially established in Kolkata but was permanently moved to Mumbai in 1937. Following Partition, it was agreed that the RBI would cease to be the currency authority for Pakistan, and Indian notes would cease to be legal tender in Pakistan. Though originally privately owned, since nationalisation in 1949, the Reserve Bank has been fully owned by the Government of India. Functions of RBI Since it came into existence, RBI has navigated and managed the several transitions the country has undergone — from a time when the planning process held sway to a more market-orientated economy and now an increasingly digital economy. Notably, the Preamble of the RBI describes the basic functions of the Reserve Bank as 'to regulate the issue of banknotes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage; to have a modern monetary policy framework to meet the challenge of an increasingly complex economy; and to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth.' In simple terms, the RBI is responsible for monetary stability, currency management, inflation targeting, regulating the banking system, setting interest rates, and managing the currency and payment systems. Monetary policy refers to the use of monetary instruments under the control of the central bank to influence variables, such as interest rates, money supply and the availability of credit, with a view to achieving the objectives of the policy. The monetary policy is used by the RBI to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth. Notably, in May 2016, the RBI Act was amended to provide a legislative mandate to the central bank to operate the country's monetary policy framework. The framework, according to the RBI website, 'aims at setting the policy (repo) rate based on an assessment of the current and evolving macroeconomic situation and modulation of liquidity conditions to anchor money market rates at or around the repo rate.' Instruments of Monetary Policy Various direct and indirect instruments are used by the RBI for implementing monetary policy, including Repo Rate, Reverse Repo Rate, Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) under the Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF), Bank Rate, Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), Open Market Operations (OMOs) and Market Stabilisation Scheme (MSS). 📌 Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF): The LAF refers to the RBI's operations through which it injects or absorbs liquidity into or from the banking system. LAF is a facility extended by RBI to the scheduled commercial banks (excluding regional rural banks) and primary dealers to avail of liquidity in case of a requirement or park excess funds with RBI in case of excess liquidity on an overnight basis against the collateral of G-Secs, including state development loans (SDLs). 📌 Repo Rate: It is the interest rate at which the Reserve Bank provides overnight liquidity to banks against the collateral of government and other approved securities under the LAF. It is the policy rate decided by the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC). 📌 Reverse Repo Rate: It is the interest rate at which the Reserve Bank absorbs liquidity, on an overnight basis, from banks against the collateral of eligible government securities under the LAF. 📌 Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) Rate: It is the rate at which a bank can borrow, on an overnight basis, from the RBI in an emergency situation when inter-bank liquidity dries up completely. It is typically placed at 25 basis points above the policy repo rate. 📌 Standing Deposit Facility (SDF) Rate: It is the rate at which the RBI, on an overnight basis, accepts uncollateralised deposits from all liquidity adjustment facility (LAF) participants. The SDF is also a financial stability tool in addition to its role in liquidity management. It was introduced in 2022 to replace the fixed-rate reverse repo (FRRR) as the floor of the liquidity adjustment facility corridor. 📌 Main Liquidity Management Tool: To manage the frictional liquidity requirements, a 14-day term repo/reverse repo auction operation at a variable rate is conducted to coincide with the cash reserve ratio (CRR) maintenance cycle. 📌 Bank Rate: In case of shortfalls in meeting the reserve requirements (cash reserve ratio and statutory liquidity ratio) by the banks, the Reserve Bank provides to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial papers at a rate which is called 'bank rate'. 📌 Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): It is the percentage of a bank's net demand and time liabilities (NDTL) that is required to be maintained in liquid cash with the RBI as a reserve. The RBI determines the CRR percentage from time to time. 📌 Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): Every bank is required to maintain Indian assets, the value of which shall not be less than such a percentage of the total of its demand and time liabilities in India as of the last Friday of the second preceding fortnight, in the form of liquid cash, gold, and government and state government securities. 📌 Open Market Operations (OMOs): These include outright purchases or sales of government securities by the Reserve Bank for injection or absorption of durable liquidity in the banking system. 📌 Market Stabilisation Scheme (MSS): This instrument for monetary management was introduced in 2004. Surplus liquidity of a more enduring nature arising from large capital inflows is absorbed through the sale of short-dated government securities and treasury bills. Depending upon the nature of the surplus liquidity (long-term/short-term), the securities under MSS (long-term dated securities/short-term CMBs) are issued. The cash so mobilised is held in a separate government account with the Reserve Bank. Monetary Policy transmission through the Repo Rate According to the official site of the RBI, 'Monetary transmission is the process through which monetary policy impulses in the form of policy rate changes by a central bank are transmitted to the entire spectrum of interest rates, such as money market rates, bond yields, bank deposit and lending rates and asset prices, such as stock prices and house prices.' Let's understand how the repo rate change affects the liquidity in the economy and transmits the objective of the monetary policy. When the RBI wants to encourage economic activity in the economy, it reduces the repo rate. Doing this enables commercial banks to bring down the interest rates they charge (on their loans) as well as the interest rate they pay on deposits. This, in turn, incentivises people to spend money, because keeping their savings in the bank now pays back a little less, and businesses are incentivised to take new loans for new investments because new loans now cost a little less as well. When the RBI wants to control inflation, it increases the repo rate. Banks thus have to pay more interest to borrow from the RBI, which means they will charge more interest to their borrowers. At a macro level, this inhibits people from borrowing money as well as from spending, which in turn reduces the amount of money in the market, and thus negates inflation. Monetary Policy Committee Under Section 45ZB of the amended RBI Act, 1934, the central government is empowered to constitute a six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) to determine the policy interest rate required to achieve the inflation target. It lays down that 'the Monetary Policy Committee shall determine the Policy Rate required to achieve the inflation target', and that 'the decision of the Monetary Policy Committee shall be binding on the Bank'. The first such MPC was constituted on September 29, 2016. Section 45ZB says the MPC shall consist of the RBI Governor as its ex officio chairperson, the Deputy Governor in charge of monetary policy, an officer of the Bank to be nominated by the Central Board, and three persons to be appointed by the central government. The last category of appointments must be from 'persons of ability, integrity and standing, having knowledge and experience in the field of economics or banking or finance or monetary policy'. (Section 45ZC) The MPC is required to meet at least four times per year. The MPC meets with a quorum of four members. Each member of the MPC has one vote, and in the event of an equality of votes, the Governor has a second or casting vote. Do you know who the members of the RBI's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) are? In 2017, UPSC asked a question on it. Do check it in the post-read questions. Both monetary policy and fiscal policy serve as critical tools for managing the economy of our country; thus, it becomes crucial to understand the differences between these policies for comprehending how economic decisions are made and impact various sectors. One key distinction between monetary and fiscal policy lies in their implementation authorities and tools. Monetary policy is formulated and implemented by the RBI, which primarily focuses on regulating the money supply, interest rates, and inflation levels. The RBI uses monetary policy instruments such as the repo rate to manage liquidity in the financial system. On the other hand, the government makes decisions pertaining to fiscal policy, and the Ministry of Finance plays a central role in formulating budgets, tax policies, and expenditure plans. The government employs fiscal policy to manage aggregate demand, promote growth, and address socioeconomic challenges. Additionally, monetary policy tends to affect borrowing costs and financial markets more immediately, which affects investment and consumption patterns. Fiscal policy measures, on the other hand, such as tax reforms or infrastructure spending, may have longer-term and more extensive effects on economic development and growth. An independent central bank plays a critical role in the macroeconomic management of the country. Coordination between monetary and fiscal policies is critical for the economy and for creating a 'Viksit Bharat'. — Express View on 90 years of RBI The RBI as a central bank is not only mandated to keep inflation or prices in check through monetary policy, but it is also supposed to manage the borrowings of the Government of India and state governments; supervise or regulate banks and non-banking finance companies; and manage the currency and payment systems While carrying out these functions or operations, the RBI registers profits. Generally, the central bank's income comes from the: (i) Returns earned on its foreign currency assets, which could be in the form of bonds and treasury bills of other central banks or top-rated securities, and deposits with other central banks. (ii) Interest on its holdings of local rupee-denominated government bonds or securities, and while lending to banks for very short tenures, such as overnight. (iii) It claims a management commission on handling the borrowings of state governments and the central government. Whereas, RBI's expenditure is mainly on the printing of currency notes and staff, besides the commission it gives to banks for undertaking transactions on behalf of the government across the country, and to primary dealers, including banks, for underwriting some of these borrowings. As the RBI isn't a commercial organisation like the banks or other companies that are owned or controlled by the government – it does not, as such, pay a 'dividend' to the owner out of the profits it generates. Although the RBI was promoted as a private shareholders' bank in 1935 with a paid-up capital of Rs 5 crore, the government nationalised it in January 1949, making the sovereign its 'owner'. What the central bank does, therefore, is transfer the 'surplus' – that is, the excess of income over expenditure – to the government, in accordance with Section 47 (Allocation of Surplus Profits) of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934: After making provision for bad and doubtful debts, depreciation in assets, contributions to staff and superannuation fund [and for all other matters for which] provision is to be made by or under this Act or which are usually provided for by bankers, the balance, of the profits shall be paid to the Central Government. The Central Board of the RBI does this in early August, after the July-June accounting year is over. Malegam committee In 2013, a technical committee of the RBI Board, headed by Y. H. Malegam, reviewed the adequacy of reserves and a surplus distribution policy and recommended a higher transfer to the government. Earlier, the RBI transferred part of the surplus to the Contingency Fund, to meet unexpected and unforeseen contingencies, and to the Asset Development Fund, to meet internal capital expenditure and investments in its subsidiaries, in keeping with the recommendation of a committee to build contingency reserves of 12% of its balance sheet. But after the Malegam committee made its recommendation, in 2013-14, the RBI's transfer of surplus to the government as a percentage of gross income (less expenditure) shot up to 99.99% from 53.40% in 2012-13. (1) Which of the following are the sources of income for the Reserve Bank of India? (UPSC CSE 2025) I. Buying and selling Government bonds II. Buying and selling foreign currency III. Pension fund management IV. Lending to private companies V. Printing and distributing currency notes Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) I and II only (b) II, III and IV (c) I, III, IV and V (d) I , II and V (2) If the RBI decides to adopt an expansionist monetary policy, which of the following would it not do? (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Cut and optimize the Statutory Liquidity Ratio 2. Increase the Marginal Standing Facility Rate 3. Cut the Bank Rate and Repo Rate Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (3) Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC CSE 2017) 1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates. 2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year. 3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister. Select the correct answer using the code given below : (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only (Sources: 90 years of the RBI, Knowledge Nugget: RBI's Monetary policy instruments, , RBI approves record transfer 'surplus' to govt: Why does this transfer happen, and how?) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for May 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at
Indian Express
05-06-2025
- Politics
- Indian Express
India's Linguistic Landscape: From constitutional safeguards to endangered languages
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative by UPSC Essentials aimed at streamlining your preparation for the prelims and mains examinations by focusing on current issues making headlines. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week we take you through India's Linguistic Landscape. Let's get started. If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | From Caste to its Census: What you must know for UPSC Exam from the Indian Express, read it here. India's multilingual landscape is the epitome of the country's diversity and heritage, having evolved into its present form after millennia of migrations and cultural mixing. It has been, in many ways, our greatest source of strength and yet, at times, the cause behind some bitter political skirmishes. In this context, let us look at India's linguistic landscape through constitutional mandate, classical languages and the challenge of extinction faced by various languages. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus-General Studies-I, II: Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times. Indian Constitution, Government policies and intervention. UPSC has previously asked questions on language-related provisions of the Constitution of India, classical languages and other associated aspects. Thus, it becomes essential to cover the topic of India's languages comprehensively, not only for the prelims but also for the mains.) Kos-kos par badle paani, chaar kos par baani (The water changes every mile, the speech every fourth.) This age-old saying beautifully captures the essence of India's unmatched linguistic richness, the linguistic diversity that has long been a defining strength of Indian democracy. Notably, even in the face of a partition based on religious grounds, the long discussions and deliberations for safeguarding the pluralistic features of Indian society were seen in the Constituent Assembly debates. In contrast to the Western model of a nation-state, where the dominant language becomes the norm, federal principles were established in the Constitution of India to encourage and protect the multilingual-multicultural ethos. India served as a model for other linguistically diverse states, encouraging them to embrace cultural-linguistic diversity. In this context, let's understand various provisions of the Constitution of India related to languages. 📍Eighth Schedule The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India lists the languages officially recognised by the Government of India. As of May 2025, 22 languages have been classified under the Eighth Schedule. Initially, however, the Schedule included 14 languages: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya (renamed to Odia in 2011), Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. These 14 languages were selected from among the hundreds identified by George A Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India which catalogued over 700 linguistic varieties across the subcontinent as early as 1927. Over time, the Schedule expanded beyond the original 14 languages to include Bodo, Dogri, Konkani, Maithili, Manipuri, Nepali, Santhali, and Sindhi, bringing the total to 22. Sindhi was added through the 21st Amendment Act of 1967; Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali were added by the 71st Amendment Act of 1992; and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali were included through the 92nd Amendment Act of 2003. Notably, the Constituent Assembly did not lay down any formal criteria for the inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule. However, from time to time, efforts have been made by various committees, such as the Ashok Pahwa Committee (1996) and the Sitakant Mohapatra Committee (2003), to define clearer criteria for inclusion. Despite these efforts, no official standard has been adopted for selecting languages for the eight schedules. The Ministry of Home Affairs confirms this position: 'As the evolution of dialects and languages is dynamic, influenced by socio-eco-political developments, it is difficult to fix any criterion for languages, whether to distinguish them from dialects or for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.' 📍Part XVII – Official Language Part XVII of the constitution of India deals with the official languages in Articles 343 to 351. Clause 1 of Article 343 ('Official language of the Union') says 'The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script', and 'The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.' Article 343(2) says that 'for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement'. The Constitution of India commenced, or came into force, on January 26, 1950. Under Article 343(3), 'Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of— (a) the English language, or (b) the Devanagari form of numerals, for such purposes as may be specified in the law.' On January 26, 1965, Section 3 of the Official Languages Act, 1963 came into effect, which provided for the 'continuation of English Language for official purposes of the Union and for use in Parliament' even after the expiration of the 15-year period after the commencement of the Constitution. Article 344 (1) provides for the constitution of a Commission by the President on expiration of five years from the commencement of the Constitution and thereafter at the expiration of ten years from such commencement, which shall consist of a Chairman and such other members representing the different languages specified in the Eighth Schedule. Article 345 talks about the Official Language of a State, it says, 'Subject to the provisions of articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of that State: Provided that, until the Legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the English language shall continue to be used for those official purposes within the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of this Constitution.' 📍Language to be Used in Representations for Redress of Grievances According to Article 350, 'Every person shall be entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance to any officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the State, as the case may be. 📍Facilities for Instruction in Mother Tongue at Primary Stage Article 350A provides special directive for the states and local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the President may issue such directions to any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities. 📍Special Officer for linguistic minorities The Constitution under Article 350B provides that 'There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the President.' Notably, it shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under this Constitution and report to the President upon those matters at such intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause all such reports to be laid before each House of Parliament, and sent to the Governments of the States concerned. 📍Directive for development of the Hindi language Article 351 says 'It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India'. However, the provision says, this must be done 'without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule'. The classical languages serve as a custodian of India's heritage, embodying the essence of a community's historical and cultural milestone.- Ashwini Vaishnaw (Union Information & Broadcasting Minister) Beyond official languages there is also a category of classical languages. These languages are considered the custodians of India's ancient and profound cultural heritage. They preserve the rich history, literature, and traditions of their respective communities. The government grants this status to languages to honour and safeguard the linguistic milestones of India's diverse cultural landscape. Notably, in October 2004, the Centre decided to create a new category of languages as 'classical languages'. On October 12 in the same year, Tamil became the first Indian language to receive 'classical' status due to its high antiquity and rich literary tradition. In November 2004, a Linguistic Experts Committee (LEC) was constituted by the Ministry of Culture under the Sahitya Akademi to examine the eligibility of the languages proposed to be accorded classical language status. Later, Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014) were given the classical languages status. On July 25, 2024, the LEC unanimously revised the criteria for classical status and recommended the following languages to be considered as classical languages: Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali. In October last year, 'Classical Language' status was granted to recommended languages, and it brought the total number of officially designated classical languages to 11. Notably, among all the classical languages, Prakrit and Pali are the two classical languages that are not mentioned in the eighth schedule of the Indian Constitution. 📍Marathi: Modern Marathi descends from Maharashtri Prakrit, a Prakrit dialect used in western India which was the official language of the Satvahanas. Some Marathi scholars have claimed that this was the first among Prakrit languages, but this claim is contested. The oldest evidence of Maharashtri Prakrit can be found in a stone inscription in Pune district, dated to the 1st century BCE. The earliest evidence of the more modern Marathi can be traced to a copper-plate inscription found in Satara, dated to 739 CE. 📍Bengali & Assamese: Both these languages can find their origin in Magadhi Prakrit, a form of Prakrit popular in East India, and the official language of the Magadha court. The exact date in which they emerged is contested, with scholars putting forward dates of origin ranging from the 6th to the 12th centuries. They took on a form which may be recognisable today well into the second millennium CE. 📍Prakrit: There is no single Prakrit language. Rather, the term refers to a group of closely-related Indo-Aryan languages, whose defining feature was that they were the language of the masses as opposed to Sanskrit, which was restricted to the elites and high literature. Historian A L Basham wrote in The Wonder that was India (1954): 'By the time of the Buddha the masses were speaking languages which were much simpler than Sanskrit. These were the Prakrits, of which several dialects have been attested.' These vernaculars were thus also the language of popular heterodox religions that emerged in the first millennium BCE. 📍Pali: Pali has traditionally been identified with Magadhi Prakrit, with the word 'pali' meaning 'lines or series', a reference to Pali being the language of the series of Buddhist texts. Some modern scholars, however, believe Pali to be a mix of several Prakrit languages (including more western dialects), which were combined and partially Sanskritised. Pali is also known as the language of the Theravada Buddhist canon. The Pali Canon falls into three general categories or pitaka (basket). Together, it is thus known as Tipitaka ('three baskets'). The classical language status holds great importance for the preservation of India's linguistic and cultural heritage. The status of 'Classical language' for languages not only elevates their stature but also facilitates efforts toward the promotion, preservation, and further research of these languages, ensuring their continued relevance in the modern world. Classical Language status can also aid a language in addressing contemporary challenges like digitalisation and globalisation. It is also expected to create employment opportunities in the fields of academics and research. The tasks of preservation, documentation, and digitisation of ancient texts of these languages will likely generate jobs in archiving, translation, publishing, and digital media. The world is facing the danger of losing its languages, several of which are listed as endangered, and the loss of languages equates to loss of culture. — Dr K Sreenivasarao (Secretary of the Sahitya Akademi) According to experts, nearly 40 per cent of the world's 7,000 languages, including dialects spoken by indigenous people groups, have already disappeared, and several others are on the verge of getting extinct. The official website of UNESCO informs us: 'A language is in danger when its speakers cease to use it, use it in an increasingly reduced number of communicative domains, and cease to pass it on from one generation to the next. That is, there are no new speakers, adults or children.' UNESCO has categorised languages on the basis of endangerment as (i) Vulnerable (ii) Definitely Endangered (iii) Severely Endangered (iv) Critically Endangered. India writes in many languages and speaks in many more voices, but not all languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution or given the tag of classical languages; often, these languages face the challenge of extinction and become endangered languages. Literary critic and activist Ganesh Narayan Devy, in an interview with Adrija Roychowdhury of The Indian Express in 2020, said – 'According to UNESCO, any language that is spoken by less than 10,000 people is potentially endangered. In India, after the 1971 census, the government decided that any language spoken by less than 10,000 people need not be included in the official list of languages. In India, therefore, all the languages that are spoken by less than 10,000 people are treated by the state as not worthy of mention and treated by the UNESCO as potentially endangered. As per my survey, there are close to 780 languages in India, out of which about 600 are potentially endangered. The census of 1991 and 2001 show not more than 122 languages. So, most others have to be called potentially endangered. Examples of such languages would be Wadari, Kolhati, Golla, Gisari. These are languages of nomadic people in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana. Then there several tribal languages as well, such as Pauri, Korku, Haldi, Mavchi. In Assam, there is Moran, Tangsa, Aiton. There seems to be about 250 languages that disappeared in the last 60 years. There used to be languages called Adhuni, Dichi, Ghallu, Helgo, Katagi. The Bo language in Andaman disappeared in 2010 and the Majhi language in Sikkim disappeared in 2015. But we need to remember that it is impossible to show a language dying in the last moment of its life. A language is not a single life system. It is a very large symbolic system. When the symbols collapse they do not do so in a single moment. The collapse is sprayed over a large time.' Do you Know? Each language's extinction causes a permanent loss of distinctive ecological, historical, and cultural knowledge. Every language is a unique expression of the human experience of the world. Additionally, the Constitution of India has included the clause to protect minority languages as a fundamental right. Article 29 states, 'Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.' In this context, recognising the significance of language preservation, various initiatives have been taken at both the national and global levels. 📍Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL) The Government of India is running the Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL). It was instituted by the Ministry of Education (Government of India) in 2013. The objective of the scheme is to document and archive the country's languages that have become endangered or are likely to be endangered in the near future. The scheme is monitored by the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) located in Mysuru, Karnataka. The CIIL has collaborated with various universities and institutes across India for this mission. Without adequate documentation, a language that is extinct can never be revived. -UNESCO The languages which are spoken by fewer than 10,000 speakers or languages which have not been linguistically studied earlier are chiefly considered to be documented in this scheme. Presently, 117 languages have been listed for the documentation. 📍Initiatives of the University Grants Commission (UGC) The University Grants Commission (UGC) has also initiated two schemes for the protection of endangered languages, namely 'Funding Support to the State Universities for Study and Research in Indigenous and Endangered Languages in India' and 'Establishment of Centres for Endangered Languages in Central Universities'. 📍International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022-2032) UNESCO has declared the years between 2022 and 2032 as the International Decade of Indigenous Languages for their protection and propagation. Do you Know? 📍UNESCO World Atlas of Languages The UNESCO World Atlas of Languages is a dynamic and interactive online tool, constantly updated by users, which documents different aspects and features of language status, vitality, endangerment and sustainability. It is a detailed record of languages. It is a unique resource for language preservation, monitoring, promotion and knowledge sharing on language-related issues, as well as an interactive tool for language teaching and learning. Prelims (1) The Constitution (71st Amendment) Act, 1992 amends the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution to include which of the following languages? (UPSC 2024) 1. Konkani 2. Manipuri 3. Nepali 4. Maithili Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 (2) Consider the following languages: (UPSC CSE 2014) 1. Gujarati 2. Kannada 3. Telugu Which of the above has/have been declared as 'Classical Language/Languages' by the Government? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (3) Which one of the following was given classical language status recently? (UPSC CSE 2015) (a) Odia (b) Konkani (c) Bhojpuri (d) Assamese (4) Consider the following languages: 1. Manipuri 2. Bodo 3. Kashmiri What is the correct chronological order of these languages as they were included in the eighth schedule of the Constitution of India? (a) 3—2—1 (b) 1—2—3 (c) 2—1—3 (d) 3—1—2 (5) The Ashok Pahwa Committee (1996) and Sitakant Mohapatra Committee (2003) were associated with: (a) Reforms in the Lok Sabha (b) Caste Census (c) Eighth Schedule (d) Delimitation Mains 1. What are the criteria for a language's designation as a 'classical language'? Discuss the significance of India's recent designation of five languages as classical languages. 2. 'The inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution has led to both empowerment and marginalisation.' Discuss the constitutional provisions related to language recognition and analyse their impact on linguistic diversity in India. (Sources: India has chosen diversity when it comes to language, Knowledge Nugget | Demand for inclusion of Kokborok and Bhojpuri in Eighth Schedule, Knowledge Nugget: Classical languages, The languages India speaks, Government grants 'Classical Language' status, Which are India's 5 new 'classical languages', Prakrit & Pali (IE), The language used in courts (IE), 'There are 600 potentially endangered languages in India..' ) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for May 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
Indian Express
29-05-2025
- Politics
- Indian Express
From Caste to its Census: What you must know for UPSC Exam
UPSC Issue at a Glance is an initiative of UPSC Essentials to focus your prelims and mains exam preparation on an issue that has been in the news. Every Thursday, cover a new topic in a lucid way. This week's issue is focused on Caste and its census. Let's get started! If you missed the previous UPSC Issue at a Glance | Trump's 100 days in White House : Greenland, Gulf of Mexico, WHO Exit, and Reciprocal tariffs – All you need to know from the Indian Express, read it here. The Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) on April 30 approved the inclusion of caste data in the upcoming population census. Union Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw made the announcement, underscoring the constitutional framework that makes Census a Union subject. The move revives a long-standing debate over caste-based enumeration and its use in governance, policy, and politics. In this context, it becomes essential for aspirants to understand caste and census from a broader perspective relevant for their upcoming exams. (Relevance: UPSC Syllabus-General Studies: I, II: Indian Polity and Governance- Constitution of India, Public Policy, Rights Issues, Population and Associated Issues, Government Policies & Interventions, Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes.) A census is the process of collecting, compiling, analysing, and disseminating demographic, social, and economic data about all individuals in the country at a specific time. There is a constitutional mandate to carry out a census in India. It is mentioned as item 69 on the Union List of subjects, meaning only the Union government is empowered to undertake the exercise. It is also mandated with several references regarding the reorganisation of constituencies for Parliament and state assemblies. However, the Constitution does not specify when the census should be conducted or how frequently it should take place. The Census of India Act of 1948, which establishes the legal framework for the Census, also lacks details on its timing or periodicity. As a result, there is no constitutional or legal requirement for a census to be conducted every 10 years. Significance of Census The Census may not be a legal requirement, but its utility has established it as a regular and essential exercise as it provides a comprehensive overview of the country's demographic, economic, social, and cultural profile. The significance of the census is: 1. It provides primary and authentic data at the village and ward levels for towns that serve as the foundation for all statistical activities, influencing the planning, administration, and economic decision-making processes. 2. Various national and international agencies, scholars and business professionals utilize this data to plan and formulate policies. 3. The data provided by the census forms the basis for every social and economic indicator as relying on outdated data, such as statistics that are 15 years old, is unreliable in a constantly changing environment. This unreliability can disrupt various indicators regarding India and negatively impact the effectiveness of all types of developmental initiatives. 4. The Census provides a foundation for conducting various surveys nationwide. It is essential for making informed decisions based on factual evidence. Democratic processes, like the delimitation of electoral constituencies, as well as affirmative action initiatives, such as reservations, also rely on data from the Census. After understanding the census and its significance, it becomes crucial to know about the caste and its historical basis, which provides the foundation to understand the ongoing debate regarding the caste census. The word 'caste' is often used to describe India's unique social system. While social arrangements producing similar effects have existed in other parts of the world, the exact form has not been found elsewhere. According to the NCERT, 'the word 'caste' refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian languages is referred to by two distinct terms, varna and jati.' Varna (literally 'colour') is the name given to a four-fold division of society into—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—with the 'untouchables' placed outside and below this hierarchy. Jati is the word generally used to refer to the institution of caste in Indian languages. The precise relationship between varna and jati has been the subject of much speculation and debate among scholars. According to the NCERT, 'the most common interpretation is to treat varna as a broad all-India aggregative classification, while jati is taken to be a regional or local sub-classification involving a much more complex system consisting of hundreds or even thousands of castes and sub-castes.' This indicates that although the four varna classification is used throughout India, the jati hierarchy has more local classifications that vary from region to region. P Chidambaram explains- 'The origins of the Indian caste system lie in varna. Varna is the four-fold division among Hindus — Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. The lines that divided them were horizontal, hierarchical and unbreachable: once you were born in a Brahmin or Kshatriya or Vaishya or Sudra family, you will remain there for your life and your progeny will remain there for the duration of their lives.' He continues to write, 'Buddhism and Jainism were born out of a revolt against the unbreachable divisions in the Hindu religion.' Chidambaram wrote, 'Within each varna there were divisions and sub-divisions and each one of them came to represent a caste (jati) or a sub-caste. Each caste or sub-caste became a closed shop; it framed its own tyrannical rules; and violations were punished by exclusion or expulsion.' 'The worst form of caste oppression was untouchability. An 'untouchable' — now called a Dalit — was totally excluded from Hindu society. He was not only lower than the Sudra, the lowest in the varna hierarchy, he was actually outside Hindu society. His role was to serve those who belonged to the varna hierarchy, to fill lower-order occupations like cobbler and undertaker, and to do the 'unclean' jobs such as scavenging and skinning carcasses', wrote Chidambaram in 'Across the aisle- India at 70: The curse of caste', The Indian Express. Concerning the exact age of the caste system, there are different opinions. However, it is generally agreed that the four varna classification is roughly three thousand years old. According to the NCERT, 'the 'caste system' stood for different things in different periods.' In its earliest phase, in the late Vedic period, the caste system was really a varna system and consisted of only four major divisions. These divisions were not very elaborate or very rigid, and they were not determined by birth. Movement across the categories seems to have been not only possible but quite common. It is only in the post-Vedic period that caste became the rigid institution. The demand for a caste census came up before almost every census, as records of debates and questions raised in Parliament show. The demand usually came from among those belonging to Other Backward Classes (OBC) and other deprived sections. This time, however, things have been quite different. With the Census 2021 delayed several times and opposition parties making the loudest calls for a caste census, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) on April 30 approved the inclusion of caste data in the upcoming population census. But it's not the first time that caste data will be included in the census. Notably, every census until 1931 had data on caste, and in 1941, caste-based data was collected, but it was never published due to the global crisis of World War II. Ahead of the first census of independent India, the government chose to avoid the question of caste. Thus, the data collected in censuses since 1951 include the numbers of individuals belonging to the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) and of various religious denominations, but the members of caste groups other than SCs and STs have not been counted. In the absence of such a census, there is no proper estimate for the population of Other Backward Classes (OBCs), various groups within the OBCs, and others. The Mandal Commission estimated the OBC population at 52%; some other estimates have been based on National Sample Survey data, and political parties make their own estimates in states and Lok Sabha and Assembly seats during elections. The recent decision by the central government to reintroduce caste enumeration in the census represents an important development in India's engagement with identity politics and social equity. As a result, the debate surrounding the caste census has resurfaced. In this context, let us explore some of the potential challenges and benefits associated with a caste-based census. The aim is to understand both sides of the argument, drawing on insights from recent articles published in The Indian Express. Issues associated with Caste Census 'Census classifications have the potential to entrench identities and aggravate social divisions' One of the major concerns related to the caste census is its negative impact on the country's social fabric. As Alok Bansal and Yashawardhana explain, 'Another reason cited for supporting this (caste census) exercise is that it will help the government shape its policies in line with the aspirations of different groups. But this kind of action might have far-reaching effects and even permanently fracture India's social fabric. This has been demonstrated by history: during British rule, the inclusion of religion in the census and subsequent creation of separate electorates had a negative impact on social cohesion, eventually resulting in India's partition. Similarly, adding caste to official census data is bound to aggravate social differences, strengthen identity politics, and splinter the country along caste lines. Thus, this is by no stretch of the imagination a harmless exercise.' It also have been argued that caste census may entrench the caste system and could derail the movement towards the creation of a casteless society. As Alok Bansal and Yashawardhana explain, 'Census classifications have the potential to entrench identities and aggravate social divisions. More significantly, contrary to religion, which continues to have some influence over personal rituals and ceremonies, caste is purely a vestige with no functional relevance in any facet of modern life. Consequently, in today's India, most youth, especially in urban India, do not identify themselves by their caste and some are not even aware of it. Inter-caste marriages have become the norm and their progenies obviously do not wish to identify themselves with any. Unfortunately, conducting a caste-based Census would force these youth to identify as members of a particular caste, thereby entrenching the caste system.' Benefits of Caste Census 1. 'Caste census is not mere data collection — it will reshape social identities' In support of the caste census, it has been argued that it will empower the marginalised sections of society. As Sumeet Mhaskar Prabodhan Pol explains, 'The push for caste enumeration today must be understood as more than a bureaucratic exercise. It is a reckoning with both colonial legacies and deeper historical inequalities based on caste. By exposing disparities in land ownership, education, and employment, a caste census could dismantle the myth of a 'post-caste' India. It has the potential to empower marginalised voices to challenge systemic exclusion.' They further argue that 'while it (caste census) risks entrenching divisions, its absence allows dominant groups to exploit ambiguities and perpetuate inequity under the guise of formal equality.' Data on castes in the Census would provide an evidentiary foundation to confront castes not as a relic of the past but as a living structure of power, which demands targeted redressal and not erasure through silence. 2. 'Data does not polarise, distrust does. That is why we need Caste Census' In support of the caste census, it have been argued that it will help the government shape its policies in line with the aspirations of different groups as it will provide the real picture of the Indian society. Abhinav Prakash and Priyank Chauhan explain, 'From Indra Sawhney (1992) to the Maratha verdict (2021), the Supreme Court has repeatedly asked governments to produce quantifiable data before extending or fine-tuning quotas. The Mandal Commission, too, based its estimates on 1931 Census numbers and sample surveys. Since then, we have added layers of creamy‑layer exclusions, sub‑quotas, and economic criteria — all without a verifiable data set. The consequence is two‑fold. First, policy loses legitimacy; anecdotes fill the vacuum where evidence should reside. Second, welfare delivery rewards the better-organised castes while bypassing the most deprived. A credible, disaggregated caste census would allow us to base policy on ground realities, restoring both efficacy and public trust.' They further explain, 'To frame the caste census as divisive misunderstands both the purpose of democracy and the nature of caste. Division is not caused by recognition; it is caused by systemic invisibility. Invisibility is a privilege enjoyed by those who do not need the state. For the rest, recognition is the first step towards remedy. The various social and political movements of weaker castes, especially those small in number in post-independent India, are aimed at becoming 'visible to the state'.' 3. 'Counting caste in the census is a step toward building fraternity' Kuriakose Mathew and Arjun Ramachandran writes- 'caste is not just social; it is spatial as well. It tells us not only who someone is, but where they live, whom they live among, whom they avoid, and the distances between different castes. Geography and caste are entangled. The all-caste census will give us the first comprehensive cartography of caste in India — who is clustered where, which jatis cohabit, which ones don't.' Recording caste irrespective of one's caste is the first step towards people-building in India. Express View: Government's decision to hold caste census is very welcome– 'The government's decision to hold a caste census with the next population Census is a turning point and a milestone. In a sense, it is the state catching up with the lived socioeconomic and political reality. Caste shapes hierarchy and discrimination, culture and belonging. It plays a role in structuring opportunity and social mobility. It influences choices and trajectories, from education to employment, and rituals of birth, death and marriage. There is work to be done after the caste census announcement. The design of the questionnaire will be consequential, and there will be the task of connecting the dots between the data and government policy…There are challenges ahead, but the fact that caste will finally be counted provides a robust, data-driven basis for policy and politics.' Prelims (1) Consider the following statements about conducting the Caste Census: 1. The Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) approved conducting a caste census in the upcoming population census. 2. It will be only the second time post-independence. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 2 only (b) 1 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (2) Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2009) 1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times. 2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (3) Consider the following statements with reference to the census in India: 1. The first All India Census was attempted in 1872. 2. From 1881, decennial censuses became a regular feature. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC-CDS(II) – 2024) (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (Note: The aspirants should also refer to the questions from other competitive exams conducted by the UPSC which might be useful for UPSC–CSE.) (4) Which of the following articles of the Constitution of India provides for promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections? (a) Article 45 (b) Article 47 (c) Article 48 (d) Article 46 Mains Why is the delayed census a matter of concern? (Sources: Cabinet approves caste Census, Caste: how a Spanish word, carried by the Portuguese, India at 70: The curse of caste, Social institutions continuity and change-NCERT, Why a caste Census is not 'harmless', Caste census is not mere data collection, Counting caste in the census is first step towards building fraternity, Data does not polarise, distrust does. That is why we need Caste Census) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – Indian Express UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for May 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Roshni Yadav is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She is an alumna of the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University, where she pursued her graduation and post-graduation in Political Science. She has over five years of work experience in ed-tech and media. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. Her interests lie in national and international affairs, governance, economy, and social issues. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
