Latest news with #mummification
Medscape
12-06-2025
- General
- Medscape
Behind History's Icons III: Van Gogh's Bloody Ear Mystery
Ancient Egyptians believed that mummifying a king's body ensured his ascent among the gods. The preserved corpse — called the Ach (Egyptian for 'shining' or 'spirit') — entered a sarcophagus symbolizing the womb of Nut, the sky goddess. The belief in the enduring power of human remains has recurred throughout history. In early Christianity, Western Europe venerated the relics of saints, including Christ's foreskin and John the Baptist's skull. By the 19th century, European physicians had begun to preserve and study organs from notable individuals. From strands of Muhammad's beard to Adolf Hitler's jaw and Buddha's teeth, this series offers an overview of the most famous human body parts in human history. Part III focuses on Vincent van Gogh's ear. Unexpected Gift In 1889, 22-year-old French intern Félix Rey (1867-1932) received an unusual gift from one of his former patients, a mentally ill painter named Vincent Willem van Gogh (1853-1890), had sent him a painting depicting Rey himself. Rey appreciated his patient's efforts but could not relate to his painting style. He considered the portrait unrealistic. It did not do justice to his natural appearance. So, he gave the painting to his mother. She called it hideous and ridiculous and used it from then on to cover a hole in the family's chicken coop. An art connoisseur soon bought the disgrace at a ridiculous price. By 2016, the painting — now in Moscow's Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts — was valued at US $50 million (then €45 million), roughly US $66.7 million (€58.6 million) in 2025. Had Rey retained it, his descendants would have been financially secure for generations. However, such mental exercise misunderstands the context in which Rey accepted the gift. He had a good reason to be skeptical of van Gogh's gesture of gratitude, given that it was the news of an even more unusual gift that had brought them together a year earlier. Self-Inflicted Injury On Christmas Eve, 1888, in Arles. As a 21-year-old medical intern most closely equivalent to today's junior doctor, Rey was on duty at Hôtel-Dieu, Paris, despite the holiday when the police brought in a man who had cut off his ear the previous night to present it to an 18-year-old prostitute. The story fascinated and horrified Rey at the same time. However, there was no time to take a medical history — a potentially life-threatening injury had to be treated. He quickly sketched the relevant anatomy, both to guide the procedure and prepare for police questions. With tunnel vision, the wound was cleaned and bandaged. Over the following week, Rey closely observed his patient and was concerned about the risk of major hemorrhage or infection. During this time, he witnessed several of what were described as van Gogh's 'crises.' These episodes reminded him of a condition in which one of his former classmates had studied for his doctoral thesis, masked epilepsy. The symptoms of this condition had been described as early as 1860 by French psychiatrist Bénédict Augustin Morel (1809-1873), whose work formed the basis of Rey's colleague's dissertation: 'Under the term 'masked epilepsy,' I described a form of epilepsy not marked by typical seizures — neither minor nor major — but instead by the accompanying or preceding symptoms of epileptic attacks: Alternating periods of excitement and depression; manifestations of sudden anger without sufficient cause and for the most trivial reasons; a usually highly irritable disposition; amnesia typical of epilepsy; and dangerous acts committed during momentary or transient fits of anger. Some people with epilepsy of this type have even experienced genuine auditory and visual hallucinations.' Rey believed he observed all these symptoms during van Gogh's case. For the first time, he diagnosed the artist with epilepsy, finally giving a name to his suffering. Van Gogh would later express deep gratitude for Rey's diagnosis and care in letters to his brother and patron, Theo van Gogh (1857-1891): '[Rey] is brave, hardworking, and always helping people,' he wrote. Before presenting one of his paintings to Rey, van Gogh asked Theo to send the doctor a copy of 'The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Tulp' by Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669). Clinical Viewpoint However, for Rey, van Gogh remained only one among many patients. He interpreted van Gogh's intense emotions less as expressions of personal feelings and more as clinical symptoms. The mystery surrounding the events of Christmas Eve in 1888 reinforced this perspective. On December 30, 1888, Rey wrote: 'When I tried to get [van Gogh] to talk about the motive that drove him to cut off his ear, he replied that it was a purely personal matter.' Centuries later, researchers found evidence that van Gogh's silence might not have served only to protect himself. Lifelong Guilt Historians now generally agree that the incident on Christmas Eve, 1888, followed a heated argument between van Gogh and his roommate Eugène-Henri-Paul Gauguin (1848-1903). That September, van Gogh had moved into a house in Arles with the goal of establishing a shared workspace for modern artists — a dream he called 'Atelier des Suds.' Although he invited several artists, only Gauguin accepted, on the condition that Theo fund his travel and a monthly stipend. Vincent agreed to share both Theo's allowance of 150 francs and his home with Gauguin. However, their differences quickly became evident. Gauguin, pragmatic and strategic, saw the partnership as a potential source of income. For van Gogh, this was a way to pursue an artistic ideal and prove himself in a competitive art world. Shortly before Gauguin's arrival, van Gogh painted nonstop for days, mostly sunflowers. He wanted to express his joy at the approaching meeting and impress his rival as he entered. Conversations about money were a greater burden on van Gogh than average, as he always felt indebted to his brother Theo, who was 4 years younger than him and supported him despite his lack of success. In a letter to Vincent soon after Gauguin arrived, Theo addressed his brother's worries: 'I am very pleased that Gauguin is with you...[...] Now, in your letter, I see that you are ill and worried a lot. I must tell you something, once and for all. [...] You speak of the money you owe and want to return to me. I do not know that. What I want you to achieve is that you should never have to worry. I am forced to work for money.' Artistic Differences The argument between Gauguin and van Gogh on the evening of December 23, 1888, was shaped by the strained dynamics among the three men. Gauguin was increasingly frustrated by the lack of success at the Southern studio, while Theo van Gogh had recently fallen in love with Johanna Gezina Bonger (1862-1925), sister of family friend and art dealer Andries Bonger (1861-1936). Vincent van Gogh feared that both Gauguin and Theo might soon abandon him. According to newspaper reports, van Gogh lost an ear around 11:30 PM that night. About 15 years later, Gauguin claimed that van Gogh had assaulted him several times during their collaboration. On the night before the infamous incident, Gauguin said that he stepped out of the studio for some air and was chased by van Gogh, who allegedly attacked him with a razor. For unknown reasons, van Gogh changed his mind and cut off his ears. Historical Debate and Brothel Mystery What is historically verified is that Gauguin left Arles abruptly on the night of December 23, 1888, and never returned to van Gogh. Records also show that during his first day in the hospital, van Gogh repeatedly asked about Gauguin's whereabouts. Gauguin had earlier instructed the police to politely turn van Gogh away if he came looking for him. Art historian Martin Bailey suggested a different version of events: That Gauguin was provoked by van Gogh and cut off his ear with a sword. To avoid prosecution, Gauguin allegedly spread false claims and fled the city. Another mystery remains — why van Gogh took his severed ear to a brothel. He reportedly gave it to his favorite prostitute, Rachel, telling her to take good care of it. She fainted on the spot. It is now known that Rachel's real name was Gabrielle Berlatier. She was 18 years old at the time, heavily in debt due to medical expenses, and worked for years as a cleaner at the Café de la Gare, a place often visited by van Gogh. Some biographers believe that after mutilating himself, van Gogh returned to his studio, where he began to hear voices. Possibly following their commands, he took his ear to the brothel and gave it to Gabrielle. The Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam supports Gauguin's version of the events of December 23, 1888. Bailey's theory that van Gogh lost his ear due to Gauguin's sword is considered highly controversial. Another debated theory appears in a book by art historian Bernadette Murphy. Based on conversations with Berlatier's descendants, she concluded that Gabrielle worked only as a janitor at the brothel. It was confirmed that Berlatier had suffered from rabies, which left her with severe scarring. Murphy speculates that van Gogh, moved by compassion, gave her his own ear as an offering or gesture of empathy. Whether the gift consisted of just the earlobe or the entire ear remained uncertain until 2016. Resurfaced drawings by Rey documenting the mutilation show that the entire ear was missing. Art critic Sidney Geist speculates that Jo Bonger may have spread conflicting narratives after her marriage to Theo van Gogh in order to improve the family image. Dual Realities The life of one of history's most celebrated artists was so complex and layered that it blurs the line between illness and health, madness and genius — simply different perspectives on the same truth. Read the previous parts of the series. • Part II: Behind History's Icons II: Hitler's Jaw and Cold War Secrets. • Part I: Behind History's Icons: Napoleon and His Notorious Anatomy.
Medscape
03-06-2025
- Politics
- Medscape
Behind History's Icons II: Hitler's Jaw and Cold War Secrets
Ancient Egyptians believed that mummifying a king's body was key to his ascent into the realm of the gods. The preserved body, known as the Ach, a luminous spirit, was thought to begin this journey by entering the sarcophagus, seen as the womb of Nut, the mother goddess of the sky. The belief in the enduring power of human remains has been deep in global history. In the West, reverence for the relics of Christian saints took place early in the Church. Some of the most extraordinary examples include what was believed to be the foreskin of Jesus and the severed head of Saint John the Baptist. By the 19th century, European scientists had begun preserving and studying body parts of famous individuals — from Mohammed's beard and Buddha's teeth to Adolf Hitler's jaw. Following the Napoleon relics story, Part II probes Hitler's preserved jaws. Hitler's Final Days It was April 28, 1945. Hitler, 1889-1945, Germany's leader, paced furiously through the corridors of the Wolf's Lair, his secret headquarters near Rastenburg, close to Görlitz. He was furious, as his trusted deputy head of the Nazi Party's paramilitary force, Heinrich Himmler is believed to have been betrayed by Hitler for several months. He reportedly held secret talks with Western Allies to end the war. Shockingly, he is said to have offered to halt the Holocaust of Hungarian Jews if Americans — Germany's main enemy in the West — would ease their attacks. Hitler was reportedly stunned. In an effort to regain his composure, Hitler summons Hermann Fegelein — 1906-1945, his liaison to the Waffen Schutzstaffel, the Nazi Party's armed military unit responsible for combat operations. According to these reports, Hitler ordered their execution. Another report stated that he ordered his arrest and left the execution order to his subordinates. Himmler, in turn, expels Hitler from the Nazi Party and removes him from all party and state positions. However, in reality, Hitler was more composed than he appeared. As often in his life, even moments of lost composure serve a greater purpose. Historian and Himmler biographer Heinz Peter Longerich noted that just one week before his public outburst on April 22, 1945, Hitler privately declared that he would stop issuing orders. This was his way of signaling to his top officials that the war was lost. By this point, Hitler had effectively lost control over his army. Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner, 1896-1966, had earlier refused to carry out a relief attack ordered by Hitler during the Battle of Berlin, calling it impossible. To avoid being linked to inevitable and shameful defeat, Hitler allowed others to handle peace negotiations and then publicly expelled them from the Nazi Party. Historians widely agree that Hitler decided to take his own life on April 27, 1945, one day before his outburst. When news of Himmler's betrayal became known, Hitler acted quickly and decisively. He first expelled Himmler from the party and then, by proxy, took revenge on Fegelein. Just before midnight, Hitler hurriedly married his partner, Eva Braun in 1912-1945. He then dictated his political and personal will to his secretary, Traudl Junge in 1920-2002. On the morning of April 30, Hitler tested poison ampoules on his German shepherd and later gave a similar poison to his colleagues. At approximately 3:30 PM, he had Braun swallow cyanide before shooting. However, myths and uncertainties surround what occurred next. Corpse Odyssey Hitler's death did not end speculation. Conspiracy theories quickly surfaced, claiming that he had faked his death and fled abroad, possibly to Argentina or Japan, with the help of body doubles and plastic surgery. According to conspiracy theories, Hitler fired a double shot and burned his body beyond recognition before escaping the submarine to Argentina or Japan. These theories claim that his outbursts of rage, will, distribution of poison vials, and suicide were staged. Until recently, Hitler was said to have lived a privileged life abroad, even after undergoing surgical alterations. Local historian and biographer Harald Sandner calls this 'humbug.' He pointed out that Hitler's body was examined multiple times by experts and moved at least 10 times. According to the report, Hitler and Braun's bodies were carried into the Reich Chancellery Garden at approximately 3:50 PM on April 30, 1945. The individuals who carried the bodies into the garden included Hitler's valet Heinz Linge, Criminal Director Peter Högl, Hauptsturmführer Ewald Lindloff, and Obersturmführer Heinrich Josef Reiser. The bodies were then doused with gasoline and set on fire. Eyewitness accounts, including that of Rottenführer Hermann Karnau, mentioned that between 4 and 6:20 PM, the remains showed movement described as 'the flesh moved up and down,' which is consistent with the natural effects of burning human bodies and muscle contractions during cremation. On May 4, Soviet soldiers found the remains, initially unaware of their significance. The next day, the bodies were reburied and moved to Helios Hospital Berlin-Buch, where autopsies were performed on May 8. Fritz Echtmann, longtime assistant to Hitler's dentist Hugo Johannes Blaschke, 1881-1959, may be for propaganda reasons, confirmed the identity of Hitler's jaw remains as unclear. However, Soviet authorities promoted the narrative that Hitler had cowardly taken poison, rejecting the evidence that he had also shot himself, and confirmed the authenticity of the jaws. Soviet doctors later claimed Hitler had 'cowardly poisoned himself instead of heroically shooting himself.' On May 4, 1945, Soviet troops from the 3rd Shock Army discovered these bodies. Unaware that they belonged to Adolf and Eva Hitler, they wrapped them in blankets and buried them. On May 5, the next day, other Soviet soldiers found the bodies again and transported them in an ammunition box to the Pathological Institute at Helios Hospital Berlin-Buch. The bodies were autopsied between May 8 and May 10. Echtmann confirmed the authenticity of Hitler's jaw. For propaganda purposes, Soviet doctors later claimed that Hitler had 'cowardly poisoned himself instead of heroically shooting himself.' Even decades later, in 1968, the well-known Russian journalist and military history professor Lev Aleksandrovich Bezymensky in 1920-2007 wrote that Hitler's charred corpse smelled of bitter almonds. In the second half of May 1945, grave robbers opened Hitler's grave, searching for a rumored Nazi treasure said to be buried with him. Soviet soldiers protected the bodies and moved them again, in ammunition crates, to Finow, 38 km away, where they were reburied. On May 22, 1945, the body was exhumed and reburied for unknown reasons. Forensic Investigation On June 9, 1945, Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov in 1896-1974 claimed that Hitler's death was uncertain. British historian Sir Richard John Evans suggested that the Soviet Union might have wanted to maintain the threat of Hitler's survival to justify a harsh occupation policy. Consequently, false information about Hitler's death is deliberately disseminated. This theory is supported by the fact that Hitler's suicide was reported in the Soviet newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda on May 10, 1945. As late as June 5, Soviet Army officers confirmed this to American officers. Probably on orders from Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin in 1878-1953 denials began just 4 days later. On June 7, 1945, the bodies of Adolf and Eva Hitler were reportedly brought to Rathenau in a 'half-rotten state.' Between December 8, 1945, and January 13, 1946, Soviet Colonel General Bogdan Zakharovich Kobulov ordered a new examination of Hitler's body. To prevent this investigation, other Soviet officials arranged for the bodies to move to Magdeburg, Germany. Once again, the bodies were buried in ammunition crates in a 2 m deep pit in the courtyard of Westendstraße 32 (now Klausenerstraße 32). On February 21, 1946, the bodies were autopsied. They were then buried in the courtyard of a Soviet military settlement beneath an 18 cm thick concrete slab. On April 5, 1970, the KGB, a highly centralized and secretive organization Chief Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov, 1914-1984, ordered the bodies to be destroyed. The military settlement was to be handed over to the East German authorities, and Andropov did not want to risk the bodies falling into their hands. Among historians, Sandner's accounts are valued but are not fully reliable. Sandner, who had never received formal training in history, did not provide detailed annotations in his books to clarify his reasoning. A publication by the French forensic scientist and pathologist Philippe Charlier in the European Journal of Internal Medicine is considered scientifically credible. Charlier reported that the Russian domestic intelligence service (Federal Security Service) allowed him and his team to examine Hitler's presumed skull and dentures, which had survived the final burning. Their investigation confirmed that the dentures belonged to Hitler. However, they were not 100% certain about the skull, which showed traces of a gunshot wound. These findings align with the report of German forensic biologist Mark Benecke, who was permitted to examine Hitler's alleged remains for a week in November 2001. Benecke wrote at the time: 'There is no doubt about the authenticity of the teeth. Hitler had a unique dental structure. He used a large metal bridge in 1944. Using old x-rays, I was able to clearly identify the teeth as Hitler's.' However, Benecke found no traces of poison or glass fragments in the ampoule. Surprised, he consulted Bezymensky. 'Bezymensky told me that the KGB had only allowed him to publish his book in 1986 on one condition: That he would support the poison theory,' Benecke wrote about his conversation with Bezymensky. Finally, the alleged fragment of Hitler's skull was stored in a plastic box, which was intended for computer disks. According to contemporary historian Joachim Fest in 1926-2006, Hitler's body was found 'slumped over,' with 'his head slightly bent forward…on the flowered sofa,' after he had shot a coin-sized hole in his temple with a pistol. If this description is correct, the skull fragment could not belong to Hitler. The entry and exit wounds suggest the shot came from below, most likely fired 'in the mouth.' To confirm identity, the remaining blood traces must be examined. However, Benecke stated that he would require comparative DNA from Hitler's relatives, such as his sister, who was buried near Munich. Exhumation is the only method to obtain genetic material. Conclusion Few other deaths are surrounded by myths similar to Hitler's death. The search for the truth about Hitler's death is complicated by the competing interests and the interests of those with partial knowledge. Historians now agree that Hitler died by suicide on April 30, 1945, either by shooting himself or by combining gunshots with poison. Scientific evidence confirms that Hitler's dentures are preserved and currently held by Russian domestic intelligence services. Whether the skull in the Russian State Archives belonged to him remains unclear.
Reuters
31-05-2025
- General
- Reuters
What do ancient Egyptian mummies smell like?
Scientists have found that ancient Egyptian mummified bodies emit woody, spicy, and sweet aromas, offering fresh insights into the mummification process, practices and materials. David Doyle has more.
Medscape
28-05-2025
- Health
- Medscape
Behind History's Icons: Napoleon and His Notorious Anatomy
The ancient Egyptians believed that mummifying the king's body enabled his ascension to the realm of the gods. According to this belief, the preserved body, known as the Ach — a luminous spirit — was thought to enter the sarcophagus, symbolizing the womb of Nut, the mother goddess of the sky. This belief in the enduring power of corpses echoes human history. In the early history of the Church in the West, Christians developed a special reverence for the bones of saints. Among the many preserved relics are Jesus' foreskin and the head of John the Baptist. By the 19th century, European scientists had begun to preserve and study the organs of extraordinary individuals. From Mohammed's beard and Buddha's teeth to Adolf Hitler's testicles, this offers an overview of the most famous human body parts in history. Part I examines the masculinity of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon: Symbol of Masculinity How masculine was Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)? The answer to this question depends on the definition of masculinity. However, sufficient biographical evidence exists to offer clear answers to some of the possible variations in this otherwise broad and general question. During the French Revolution, young soldier Bonaparte distinguished himself as a military talent of the highest caliber. He went on to become a general of the First French Republic, the First Consul of France, and eventually the Emperor of the French, King of Italy, and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine. Pieter Geyl wrote in 1947, 'It is impossible that two historians, especially two historians living in different periods, should see any historical personality in the same light.' reflecting on the personality that enabled Bonaparte's swift rise to military and political power. What is beyond dispute is that Bonaparte was 'ambitious,' 'highly intelligent,' 'exceptionally well-organized,' and possessed 'an excellent memory.' These traits allowed him to issue complex military orders swiftly and accurately during critical battles without losing track of troop movements. Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington from 1769 to 1852, said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers. He could charm people when he needed to but could also publicly humiliate them and was known for his rage when his plans were frustrated. By that measure, if masculinity was defined by ambition, resolve, and authority, Napoleon would undoubtedly be masculine. Frail Figure Physical strength is another traditional indicator of masculinity. Swiss officer Johann Ludwig Wurstemberger, who accompanied Bonaparte between 1797 and 1798, described him at 29 as 'slight and emaciated looking.' Among his troops, Bonaparte was nicknamed Le Petit Caporal, translated as 'The Little Corporal.' In many later portraits, he appears noticeably shorter than his officers do. This apparent contradiction between personality and physique inspired the Austrian physician and psychiatrist Alfred Adler in 1870-1937 to retrospectively diagnose Bonaparte with an inferiority complex, which was largely caused by his small stature and sexual dysfunction. Adler's theory evolved into what is now known as the 'Napoleon complex.' Historians now know that Napoleon was not unusually short. Standing at 1.686 m, he was > 8 cm taller than the average Frenchman of his time. Young soldiers usually measured between 1.65 and 1.69 m. The fact that Bonaparte nevertheless appears short in paintings is probably due to his preference for tall soldiers — none of his bodyguards were < 1.76 m. Contradictory Sex Life Bonaparte had his first sexual experiences at 18 as a second lieutenant with Parisian prostitutes from the Palais-Royal. He remained faithful to his first wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais, for 2 years — 1763-1814. While on campaign in Egypt, he met Marguérite Pauline Fourés in 1778-869, who was newly married. After sending her husband, a lieutenant, back to France with an important letter, Bonaparte had an affair with Fourés. Two years later, he became involved with the famous Milanese opera singer Giuseppina Grassini — 1773-1850. Later, Bonaparte had affairs with actors Marguerite-Joséphine Georges in 1787-1867 and Catherine-Joséphine Duchesnois in 1777-1835, as well as with Adèle Duchâtel — 1782-1860, the wife of an elderly state councilor. Napoleon appointed the young Genoese dancer Carlotta Gazzani in 1789-1827 as de Beauharnais's reader to facilitate his affairs with Gazzani. Bonaparte also seduced the wives of his officers and other politicians. However, politician and writer Marie-Henri Beyle in 1783-1842, who witnessed one of Bonaparte's encounters, wrote about his sexual performance: 'The emperor, sitting at a small table with his sword at his side, signed decrees. The lady entered, without being disturbed, he asked her to sit on the bed. The main part of the meeting lasted < 3 minutes. Often his Mameluke stood behind a screen.' Surgeon and author Robert McNair Wilson later speculated that Napoleon had testicular atrophy and impotence in his 50s. Even when the Countess of Ornano, Maria Walewska in 1786-1817, with whom he had already fathered an illegitimate child, secretly visited him in exile in 1814, she was given separate accommodation. The Final Symbol A final thought-provoking detail about Bonaparte's masculinity comes from his penis, obtained during an autopsy in 1821 and reportedly preserved to this day. In a Channel 4 documentary by the British television network, Napoleon's preserved penis, reportedly owned by American urologist John Kingsley Lattimer, was measured off-camera. at 1.0 inch (2.54 cm). Experts estimate that in his lifetime, it may have measured approximately 3-4 cm. The penis is often viewed as a symbol of male creativity and power. However, the discovery of the penis of one of history's most influential and idealized figures, Monarch Napoleon I, invites a reconsideration of penis cults and old stereotypes.
CNN
26-05-2025
- Science
- CNN
Scientists use scent to discover new insights into mummies
Scientists have found that ancient Egyptian mummified bodies emit different types of aromas, offering new insights into the mummification process.
