Latest news with #copperMining
Fast Company
6 days ago
- Science
- Fast Company
Computer simulations reveal the first wheel was invented nearly 6,000 years ago
Imagine you're a copper miner in southeastern Europe in the year 3900 BCE. Day after day you haul copper ore through the mine's sweltering tunnels. You've resigned yourself to the grueling monotony of mining life. Then one afternoon, you witness a fellow worker doing something remarkable. With an odd-looking contraption, he casually transports the equivalent of three times his body weight on a single trip. As he returns to the mine to fetch another load, it suddenly dawns on you that your chosen profession is about to get far less taxing and much more lucrative. What you don't realize: You're witnessing something that will change the course of history—not just for your tiny mining community, but for all of humanity. Despite the wheel's immeasurable impact, no one is certain as to who invented it, or when and where it was first conceived. The hypothetical scenario described above is based on a 2015 theory that miners in the Carpathian Mountains (now Hungary) first invented the wheel nearly 6,000 years ago as a means to transport copper ore. The theory is supported by the discovery of more than 150 miniaturized wagons by archaeologists working in the region. These pint-size, four-wheeled models were made from clay, and their outer surfaces were engraved with a wickerwork pattern reminiscent of the basketry used by mining communities at the time. Carbon dating later revealed that these wagons are the earliest known depictions of wheeled transport to date. This theory also raises a question of particular interest to me, an aerospace engineer who studies the science of engineering design. How did an obscure, scientifically naive mining society discover the wheel, when highly advanced civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians, did not? A controversial idea It has long been assumed that wheels evolved from simple wooden rollers. But until recently no one could explain how or why this transformation took place. What's more, beginning in the 1960s, some researchers started to express strong doubts about the roller-to-wheel theory. After all, for rollers to be useful, they require flat, firm terrain and a path free of inclines and sharp curves. Furthermore, once the cart passes them, used rollers need to be continually brought around to the front of the line to keep the cargo moving. For all these reasons, the ancient world used rollers sparingly. According to the skeptics, rollers were too rare and too impractical to have been the starting point for the evolution of the wheel. But a mine—with its enclosed, human-made passageways—would have provided favorable conditions for rollers. This factor, among others, compelled my team to revisit the roller hypothesis. A turning point The transition from rollers to wheels requires two key innovations. The first is a modification of the cart that carries the cargo. The cart's base must be outfitted with semicircular sockets, which hold the rollers in place. This way, as the operator pulls the cart, the rollers are pulled along with it. This innovation may have been motivated by the confined nature of the mine environment, where having to periodically carry used rollers back around to the front of the cart would have been especially onerous. The discovery of socketed rollers represented a turning point in the evolution of the wheel and paved the way for the second and most important innovation. This next step involved a change to the rollers themselves. To understand how and why this change occurred, we turned to physics and computer-aided engineering. Simulating the wheel's evolution To begin our investigation, we created a computer program designed to simulate the evolution from a roller to a wheel. Our hypothesis was that this transformation was driven by a phenomenon called ' mechanical advantage.' This same principle allows pliers to amplify a user's grip strength by providing added leverage. Similarly, if we could modify the shape of the roller to generate mechanical advantage, this would amplify the user's pushing force, making it easier to advance the cart. Our algorithm worked by modeling hundreds of potential roller shapes and evaluating how each one performed, both in terms of mechanical advantage and structural strength. The latter was used to determine whether a given roller would break under the weight of the cargo. As predicted, the algorithm ultimately converged upon the familiar wheel-and-axle shape, which it determined to be optimal. During the execution of the algorithm, each new design performed slightly better than its predecessor. We believe a similar evolutionary process played out with the miners 6,000 years ago. It is unclear what initially prompted the miners to explore alternative roller shapes. One possibility is that friction at the roller-socket interface caused the surrounding wood to wear away, leading to a slight narrowing of the roller at the point of contact. Another theory is that the miners began thinning out the rollers so that their carts could pass over small obstructions on the ground. Either way, thanks to mechanical advantage, this narrowing of the axle region made the carts easier to push. As time passed, better-performing designs were repeatedly favored over the others, and new rollers were crafted to mimic these top performers. Consequently, the rollers became more and more narrow, until all that remained was a slender bar capped on both ends by large discs. This rudimentary structure marks the birth of what we now refer to as 'the wheel.' According to our theory, there was no precise moment at which the wheel was invented. Rather, just like the evolution of species, the wheel emerged gradually from an accumulation of small improvements. This is just one of the many chapters in the wheel's long and ongoing evolution. More than 5,000 years after the contributions of the Carpathian miners, a Parisian bicycle mechanic invented radial ball bearings, which once again revolutionized wheeled transportation. Ironically, ball bearings are conceptually identical to rollers, the wheel's evolutionary precursor. Ball bearings form a ring around the axle, creating a rolling interface between the axle and the wheel hub, thereby circumventing friction. With this innovation, the evolution of the wheel came full circle. This example also shows how the wheel's evolution, much like its iconic shape, traces a circuitous path—one with no clear beginning, no end, and countless quiet revolutions along the way.
Associated Press
09-06-2025
- Politics
- Associated Press
Attorneys get more time to argue over contested copper mine on land sacred to Apaches
A U.S. district judge in Arizona has opened the door for the next round of legal wrangling as environmentalists and some Native Americas seek to stop the federal government from transferring land in Arizona for a massive copper mining project. Judge Dominic Lanza in a ruling issued Monday denied motions that sought to halt the transfer pending the outcome of the case. However, he did preclude the U.S. Forest Service from proceeding with the land exchange until 60 days after the agency issues a required environmental review. Lanza said that would give the parties more time to analyze the environmental report and file amended complaints. He said granting a preliminary injunction now would be premature since the review will differ in some ways from the one that spurred the legal challenge four years ago. 'It is unfortunate that the result of this order will be to force the parties to engage in another stressful, abbreviated round of briefing and litigation activity' when the new review is issued, he said, acknowledging the unusual circumstances. Attorneys for the federal government and the mining company agreed during a recent hearing to the 60-day delay. That time frame also is specified in the legislation that Congress passed and then-President Barack Obama signed in 2014 authorizing the exchange. The group Apache Stronghold, the San Carlos Apache Tribe and others welcomed more time to fight for Oak Flat, an area they consider as holy. 'In this critical moment, we call on the Trump administration and Congress to halt the transfer to a Chinese-owned mine, and honor what is sacred,' said Wendsler Nosie Sr., leader of Apache Stronghold. 'As we continue to fight in court, know this: Nothing will turn us away from defending the spiritual essence of our people, the lifeblood that connects us to the creator and this land.' A statement from Resolution Cooper said the ruling is consistent with prior decisions and gives the parties time to review the final environmental impact statement that will be issued later this month. 'We are confident the project satisfies all applicable legal requirements,' said Resolution president and general manager Vicky Peacey. She added that years of consultation with tribes and communities resulted in changes to the mining plan to reduce potential effects. The fight over Oak Flat dates back about 20 years, when legislation proposing the land exchange was first introduced. It failed repeatedly in Congress before being included in a must-pass national defense spending bill in 2014. San Carlos Apache Chairman Terry Rambler said Monday that the bill was not in the best interest of the American people, Arizona or his tribe. He said concerns persist about the mine's use of groundwater and the pending obliteration of the culturally significant site. Apache Stronghold and the tribe sued the U.S. government in 2021 to protect the place tribal members call Chi'chil Bildagoteel, which is dotted with ancient oak groves and traditional plants the Apaches consider essential to their religion. The U.S. Supreme Court recently rejected an appeal by the Apache group, letting lower court rulings stand. The project has support in nearby Superior and other traditional mining towns in the area. The company — a subsidiary of international mining giants Rio Tinto and BHP — estimates the mine will generate $1 billion a year for Arizona's economy and create thousands of jobs.
Zawya
29-05-2025
- Business
- Zawya
Jordan approves 30-year copper mining concession: Report
Jordan has approved a 30-year agreement with Wadi Araba Minerals Company for copper mining in southern Jordan. The deal grants mining rights over a 25-sq-km area, with the extracted raw materials to be processed locally to maximise national economic returns, the Jordan Times reported, citing an official statement. The move aims to halt the export of unprocessed copper. Plans entail setting up a public shareholding company, with a portion to be floated on the local stock exchange, the report said, without providing further details. The government revenues from the project will be linked to international copper prices, the newspaper said. In March, Jordan offered several mining sites to investors in its Southern Aqaba areas. The country has set an ambitious target to expand the mining sector's contribution to GDP to nearly JOD 2.1 billion ($2.9 billion) in 2033 from around JOD 700 million ($980 million) in 2024, according to a report by the Energy and Mineral Resources Ministry. (Writing by P Deol; Editing by Anoop Menon) (
Zawya
29-05-2025
- Business
- Zawya
Jordan: Cabinet approves copper mining agreement, expands customs fine exemptions
AMMAN — The Cabinet on Wednesday approved a number economic and regulatory decisions during its session on Sunday, including an executive agreement for copper mining, new customs fine exemptions, and progress on green hydrogen development. During a session chaired by Prime Minister JafarHassan, the Cabinet approved a 30-year executive agreement with Wadi Araba Minerals Company for copper mining in southern Jordan. Under the deal, the company will be registered as a public shareholding entity, with a portion of its shares to be offered for public subscription. The agreement, which covers 25 square kilometers, prohibits the export of raw materials, mandating local processing to maximize national economic benefit. Government revenues will be tied to global copper prices. Copper is classified as a strategic resource in Jordan, requiring a special concession law for its exploitation. The Cabinet also expanded customs fine exemptions to include cases discovered or documented before January 1, 2025. Fines may now be waived by up to 90 per cent, up from the previous cut-off of 2022. The decision aims to support investors, traders, and citizens by closing pending customs cases and accelerating revenue collection, aligning with Jordan's broader economic modernization goals. The Cabinet granted a five-year grace period to quarry operators in the alternative Samad area (zones 1, 2, and 3) to cease operations. No new licenses will be issued in the area, and existing operators must commit to site rehabilitation. The Energy and Minerals Regulatory Commission was tasked with studying incentive options for operators who exit the area ahead of schedule. Green hydrogen The Cabinet also approved a land-use agreement with Indian company Ocior Energy to conduct feasibility studies for a green hydrogen production project. The initiative is part of Jordan's ambition to become a regional hub for green hydrogen and ammonia, with several memorandums of understanding already signed. The initiative aligns with the Economic Modernisation Vision's 2020–2030 roadmapunder the sustainable resources pillar. The Cabinet also approved recommendations to resolve 419 outstanding tax cases between taxpayers and the Income and Sales Tax Department. The move is part of efforts to ease regulatory pressure on businesses and promote sustainable growth by enabling tax settlements and reducing obstacles to expansion. The Cabinet agreed to amend financing agreements under the results-based programmefor education sector reform and approved an increase of approximately JD7 million to the Ministry of Education's 2026 budget allocation. The programme aims to improve the learning environment, boost kindergarten enrolment, modernise assessments and exams, enhance the General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (Tawjihi), expand student registration support, and establish a National Centre for Innovation in Educational Technology and Artificial Intelligence. The Cabinet approved recommendations from the Settlement and Reconciliation Committee to resolve 419 pending tax cases involving companies and individuals, under the Income and Sales Tax Laws. © Copyright The Jordan Times. All rights reserved. Provided by SyndiGate Media Inc. (
The Independent
27-05-2025
- Business
- The Independent
The Supreme Court rejects a plea to block a copper mine on land in Arizona that's sacred to Apaches
The Supreme Court on Tuesday rejected an appeal from Apaches who are fighting to halt a massive copper mining project on federal land in Arizona that they hold sacred. The justices left in place lower court decisions allowing the transfer of the Tonto National Forest land, known as Oak Flat, to Resolution Copper, which plans to mine what it says is the second-largest known copper deposit in the world. The Trump administration has said it will push to complete the transfer. A group known as Apache Stronghold, representing the interests of certain members of the San Carlos Apache Tribe, has argued that the land transfer will result in the destruction of the site in violation of its members' religious rights. Apache tribes in Arizona consider Oak Flat, which is dotted with ancient oak groves and traditional plants, essential to their spiritual well-being. An estimated 40 billion pounds of copper could be mined over the lifetime of the mine, according to the U.S. Forest Service. The project has significant support in nearby Superior and other traditional mining towns in the area. The company estimates the mine will generate $1 billion a year for Arizona's economy and create thousands of local jobs. Resolution Copper is a subsidiary of international mining giants Rio Tinto and BHP. Congress approved a land swap in 2014 that would give Resolution Copper 3.75 square miles (9.71 square kilometers) of forest land in return for eight parcels it owns in Arizona. In the waning days of the first Trump administration, the U.S. Agriculture Department issued the required environmental review that would allow the land swap to proceed. Apache Stronghold sued in federal court to block it. With the change in administrations to President Joe Biden, the Agriculture Department, which includes the Forest Service, pulled back the review to further consult with Native American tribes. But the suit proceeded and a year ago, the federal appeals court in San Francisco split 6-5 to allow the land transfer to go forward, rejecting Apache Stronghold's arguments about religious freedom and its invocation of a 1852 treaty between the U.S. government and the Apaches. The five dissenting judges described the outcome as a tragic error that would result in 'the utter destruction' of the sacred site. The Forest Service already has provided the 60 days notice that it intends to re-issue the environmental review, as required by a court order.
