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Fast Company
7 days ago
- Science
- Fast Company
Computer simulations reveal the first wheel was invented nearly 6,000 years ago
Imagine you're a copper miner in southeastern Europe in the year 3900 BCE. Day after day you haul copper ore through the mine's sweltering tunnels. You've resigned yourself to the grueling monotony of mining life. Then one afternoon, you witness a fellow worker doing something remarkable. With an odd-looking contraption, he casually transports the equivalent of three times his body weight on a single trip. As he returns to the mine to fetch another load, it suddenly dawns on you that your chosen profession is about to get far less taxing and much more lucrative. What you don't realize: You're witnessing something that will change the course of history—not just for your tiny mining community, but for all of humanity. Despite the wheel's immeasurable impact, no one is certain as to who invented it, or when and where it was first conceived. The hypothetical scenario described above is based on a 2015 theory that miners in the Carpathian Mountains (now Hungary) first invented the wheel nearly 6,000 years ago as a means to transport copper ore. The theory is supported by the discovery of more than 150 miniaturized wagons by archaeologists working in the region. These pint-size, four-wheeled models were made from clay, and their outer surfaces were engraved with a wickerwork pattern reminiscent of the basketry used by mining communities at the time. Carbon dating later revealed that these wagons are the earliest known depictions of wheeled transport to date. This theory also raises a question of particular interest to me, an aerospace engineer who studies the science of engineering design. How did an obscure, scientifically naive mining society discover the wheel, when highly advanced civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians, did not? A controversial idea It has long been assumed that wheels evolved from simple wooden rollers. But until recently no one could explain how or why this transformation took place. What's more, beginning in the 1960s, some researchers started to express strong doubts about the roller-to-wheel theory. After all, for rollers to be useful, they require flat, firm terrain and a path free of inclines and sharp curves. Furthermore, once the cart passes them, used rollers need to be continually brought around to the front of the line to keep the cargo moving. For all these reasons, the ancient world used rollers sparingly. According to the skeptics, rollers were too rare and too impractical to have been the starting point for the evolution of the wheel. But a mine—with its enclosed, human-made passageways—would have provided favorable conditions for rollers. This factor, among others, compelled my team to revisit the roller hypothesis. A turning point The transition from rollers to wheels requires two key innovations. The first is a modification of the cart that carries the cargo. The cart's base must be outfitted with semicircular sockets, which hold the rollers in place. This way, as the operator pulls the cart, the rollers are pulled along with it. This innovation may have been motivated by the confined nature of the mine environment, where having to periodically carry used rollers back around to the front of the cart would have been especially onerous. The discovery of socketed rollers represented a turning point in the evolution of the wheel and paved the way for the second and most important innovation. This next step involved a change to the rollers themselves. To understand how and why this change occurred, we turned to physics and computer-aided engineering. Simulating the wheel's evolution To begin our investigation, we created a computer program designed to simulate the evolution from a roller to a wheel. Our hypothesis was that this transformation was driven by a phenomenon called ' mechanical advantage.' This same principle allows pliers to amplify a user's grip strength by providing added leverage. Similarly, if we could modify the shape of the roller to generate mechanical advantage, this would amplify the user's pushing force, making it easier to advance the cart. Our algorithm worked by modeling hundreds of potential roller shapes and evaluating how each one performed, both in terms of mechanical advantage and structural strength. The latter was used to determine whether a given roller would break under the weight of the cargo. As predicted, the algorithm ultimately converged upon the familiar wheel-and-axle shape, which it determined to be optimal. During the execution of the algorithm, each new design performed slightly better than its predecessor. We believe a similar evolutionary process played out with the miners 6,000 years ago. It is unclear what initially prompted the miners to explore alternative roller shapes. One possibility is that friction at the roller-socket interface caused the surrounding wood to wear away, leading to a slight narrowing of the roller at the point of contact. Another theory is that the miners began thinning out the rollers so that their carts could pass over small obstructions on the ground. Either way, thanks to mechanical advantage, this narrowing of the axle region made the carts easier to push. As time passed, better-performing designs were repeatedly favored over the others, and new rollers were crafted to mimic these top performers. Consequently, the rollers became more and more narrow, until all that remained was a slender bar capped on both ends by large discs. This rudimentary structure marks the birth of what we now refer to as 'the wheel.' According to our theory, there was no precise moment at which the wheel was invented. Rather, just like the evolution of species, the wheel emerged gradually from an accumulation of small improvements. This is just one of the many chapters in the wheel's long and ongoing evolution. More than 5,000 years after the contributions of the Carpathian miners, a Parisian bicycle mechanic invented radial ball bearings, which once again revolutionized wheeled transportation. Ironically, ball bearings are conceptually identical to rollers, the wheel's evolutionary precursor. Ball bearings form a ring around the axle, creating a rolling interface between the axle and the wheel hub, thereby circumventing friction. With this innovation, the evolution of the wheel came full circle. This example also shows how the wheel's evolution, much like its iconic shape, traces a circuitous path—one with no clear beginning, no end, and countless quiet revolutions along the way.
Times
13-06-2025
- Times
The enchanting fairytale region where a week costs less than £400
'Literally the last unspoilt, untouched area.' That was how King Charles, then but a prince, described Transylvania in 2015. And this central Romanian region, where the Carpathian Mountains cede to forested valleys, meadows and medieval settlements, is little changed since. That despite the 2023 opening of an international airport outside Transylvania's second-biggest city, Brasov, and the subsequent launch of a thrice-weekly Wizz Air service there from Luton. Those handy direct flights anchor this DIY holiday, which uses Brasov as a base and comes with car hire to enable easy exploration. Looming above its namesake town, Bran Castle (almost certainly wrongly cited as the inspiration for Count Dracula's base in Bram Stoker's classic novel) may be non-negotiable — but do try to arrive well before the 9am opening time or risk a three-hour queue. The fortress is frequently cited as the inspiration for Count Dracula's base in Bram Stoker's classic horror novel. A million visitors are reckoned to come each year. Inside, all is actually underwhelming, apart from a worryingly comprehensive exhibition of torture instruments (£12; Luckily Transylvania has numerous other seductions, not least of which is its general vibe. In every village houses are painted in cheerful pastel shades, orchards seem to overflow with fruit, and families pile on to horse-pulled carts like it's 1899. Early summer then sees rich banks of wildflowers accompany neat hay bales in meadows, and the seasonal reopening of the Transfagarasan highway (or, more prosaically, DN7C). Previously called 'the greatest road in the world' by one Jeremy Clarkson, this is a marble chute-like wiggler which offers epic views as it hairpins up to Balea Lake — do be prepared for traffic, though. The season also spurs activity. Hikers might follow a portion of the just-launched Via Transilvanica long-distance trail, or cross and recross the Varghis Gorges river on wobbly wooden bridges bound for bat-filled caves. Brasov has an equestrian centre, while guides drive animal lovers into the mountains in search of brown bears (half-day tour from £54, • 21 of the best affordable holiday destinations for 2025 Brasov enchants. Spreading out from a neoclassical main square, Piata Sfatului, its cobbled streets and colourful baroque buildings are best admired from the hilltop White Tower's viewing platform (free). You'll find numerous excellent restaurants, all of them serving immense portions of hearty Transylvanian fare such as grilled sausages, stews or sarmale (cabbage rolls)at low prices. Try, somehow, to leave room for some papanasi, a fried cheese pastry slathered in sour cream and cherry or berry jam. Your suggested self-catering base is a chic old town apartment four minutes' walk from Piata Sfatului. One of several options inside the Richter Residence, restored interwar building, it comes with chunky beams above white walls and flashes of teal, a spacious walk-in shower, an espresso machine and a satellite TV. Maybe Dracula will be on? • Return Luton-Brasov flights, departing on June 26• 10kg hold luggage per person• Seven days' car hire from Brasov airport• Seven nights' self-catering for two at the Richter Residence This article contains affiliate links, which can earn us revenue Feeling flush? If you're inspired to visit Transylvania and have more to spend you could try … The King has long been smitten with Transylvania and before ascending the throne he spent years overseeing the restoration of some 17th-century dwellings amid a remote hamlet in the hilly Zalan valley. The result is today's seven-bedroom Prince of Wales's Guesthouse, a rustic property filled with local fabrics. Meals typical of the local area reflecting local ethnic groups are served daily, and guests can book riding trips or use the hot tub when not just lounging around in Seven nights' B&B from £413pp. Flights from £234. Seven days' car hire from £61pp • 12 great value holidays to book now for a summer bargain Having lorded over these lands for eight centuries, the Bethlen family have recently turned their Transylvanian domain into a luxurious escape with a large heated pool. Bethlen Estate guests stay in nattily designed cottages and can enjoy grilled river trout and blackberry cake in the barn restaurant, while sipping surprisingly good local wines. Lots of leisurely pursuits — from birdwatching to cycling tours and sheep-herding — are available to help you to make the most of the beautiful wilderness all Seven nights' B&B from £1,102pp. Flights from £234. Seven days' car hire from £69pp
Telegraph
18-05-2025
- General
- Telegraph
The truth about Europe's ancient hatred of the Roma
As a Roma woman with a doctorate from a British university, Madeline Potter often notices that the outside world can perceive her as 'one of the good ones – someone who's somehow managed to make something of myself despite being Roma'. By way of riposte, she has produced a book, The Roma, that is part narrative history, part memoir and part cultural celebration, hoping it might 'offer a model of resistance' for those 'forced into poverty, precarious living conditions and socio-political vulnerability' . Born in a post-industrial town in the foothills of Romania's Carpathian mountains in 1989, the year history caught up with the Ceaușescus, Potter never saw her people roaming the land in bowtop wagons. The long-travelling tradition had vanished. Her great-grandparents, however, had lived as nomads; their vitsa, or subgroup, the Kalderash, was and still is among the largest in the region, its men traditionally coppersmiths. Although her grandfather told her stories of the old days, Potter didn't discover much Romani history until she was in her 20s. Nonetheless, she always 'felt a strange sense of belonging to a past from which I had been cut off'. Now an academic at the University of Edinburgh, Potter clarifies her terminology at the outset. She uses 'Roma' as a plural noun to refer broadly to all subgroups of the Romani people; 'Rom' is the singular masculine, 'Romni' the singular feminine. 'Romani' is an adjective. 'Gypsy', short for Egyptian and therefore a misnomer, barely comes into it. As for the origin story, there is, Potter says, 'no written account of our migration westwards from the territory of present-day Rajasthan in India, and there are no exact dates, but most historians agree that it probably happened in waves during the sixth or seventh centuries.' The book is arranged geographically, following the author's travels through 10 countries in pursuit of both cultural roots and present-day Roma (hence the subtitle, 'A Travelling History'). Some lands Potter already knows well, such as Germany, home to between 170,000 and 300,000 Roma; others, such as Bulgaria, she has never visited before. The story of the US Roma, a million strong today, didn't follow the overall pattern of migration (the ancestors of Roma there came from Europe). A fifth of American Roma live in California. The mass deportations of Roma by the Nazis in the Second World War, the Porrajmos or Samudaripen, was 'a genocide rarely given the same status and attention as the Holocaust'. Some of Potter's relatives from eastern Slovakia perished in Dachau. Estimates used put the number of murdered Roma between 200,000 and 500,000: according to the author, 'historians now think the figure might have been much higher, perhaps reaching one-and-a-half million.' The book is at its strongest when it compares the experiences of these various national groups, and, of course, it's the specificities that hit home. At an anti-Roma protest in Bulgaria in 2011 (where the Roma population is about 800,000), chants of 'Gypsies into soap' persisted; later, an MEP called on Facebook for euthanasia for alleged criminals. To a certain extent, The Roma presents a digest of this marginalisation, persecution and the erasure of history, all reflected in Potter's own experience as she moves around as an observer. In France, she reads blogs and public safety bulletins warning tourists of 'Gypsy scams'. In Spain, where she enrols for the Madrid marathon, she quickly feels stereotyped. She notes, everywhere, the widespread sentiment 'that our culture is inherently bad and harmful to society'. Potter is a clear-headed witness to racism and abuse. And yet I would have liked more on why the endemic hatred and prejudice first took root, and went so deep. Beyond slightly vague talk of fear of the Other, and the information that a negative status clung to Roma from almost the minute they led their horses out of Asia, Potter doesn't tackle the issue. It's a mightily complex subject. But The Roma begs the question. Despite, or perhaps because of that prejudice, Potter defiantly honours the spirit of Roma culture wherever she finds it. Music comes up a lot, and she describes the first feminist Romani theatre company in Romania and the first ever Roma Pride (in Bulgaria). On the other side, the 'fetishisation' of the Roma by artists outside the community gets an airing. In 1867 the composer Franz Liszt published an essay on 'The Gipsy in Music', she writes, which was blind to the history of the subjugation. The author cites a range of sources from Romani scholars to the memoir of Philomena Franz, from the Sinti sub-group found mainly in Bavaria, and poetry by Jo Clements, whose collection Outlandish appeared to acclaim in the UK in 2022. Potter's prose, however, often deployed in the narrative present tense, tends to be flat ('I soak up the atmosphere'), and at times one senses the dead hand of the academic; her first book was a specialist monograph, and she tells the reader three times she is 'a scholar of Gothic literature'. She wants to celebrate, as well as memorialise, but although one hears that 'all vitsi are beautiful, each one a voice in a polyphonous Romani choir', not many pages really sing. Potter's excursion to the famous Appleby Horse Fair in Cumbria conjures a lively scene, but her overall portrait of Romani Britain is bleak. Roma arrived in the United Kingdom when Henry VIII was on the throne; there are about 200,000 Roma Britons now, including the Welsh Kale. And yet, as Potter puts it, Roma face a 'hostile reality'. Since the 2022 Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act entered the statute books, 'trespassing in the United Kingdom has become a criminal offence.' The law, therefore, Potter firmly believes, now 'poses an existential threat. At the risk of having their property confiscated by police, [the Roma] are in danger of being left – paradoxically – homeless, and pushed further into the black hole of precarity and vulnerability.' Again and again, contemplating dark times, Potter celebrates 'resilience and survival'; she wants her book to be seen 'not as a history of victimhood, but of resistance'. And this it is. 'Our bodies', she writes with spirit, 'speak of that survival: we are here, alive, singing and dancing, and still carrying on, and nobody can take that away.' As she concludes: 'The road goes on.'
