How Buddhism shows the path to nirvana
— Sreekala M V
Buddhism is a significant world religion today, influencing many with its teachings. Originating in the 6th century BCE in the Indian subcontinent, Buddhism, along with other Śramanic sects emerged as a result of growing discontent towards ritualistic and hierarchical aspects of the Brahmanical tradition.
Embodied in an egalitarian philosophy, Buddhism challenged the social hierarchies prevalent during the period when it emerged. It promoted the idea that spiritual liberation (nirvana) was accessible to all individuals, regardless of their social positioning. In doing so, it questioned the existing Brahmanical practices and the role of the Purohita (priestly class).
The teachings of Buddhism focused on a journey towards nirvana through a 'middle path'. But what is the transformative path that the Buddha outlined to attain salvation? How does Buddhism reorder social hierarchy and why is the Buddha often addressed as Brahmana? Let's explore.
The date of the Buddha has long been a subject of debate among scholars. The canonical texts in Pali, especially the Pitakas (Sutta and Vinaya), contain his hagiography (writing about the lives of saints). One can also find information about Buddha and his life in texts like Mahavastu, Buddhacharita, and others.
However, since most of these texts have narrations intended to spread moral and philosophical teachings, they often blend historical elements with legendary narrations, making it difficult to identify historical facts. According to Upinder Singh, some of these narrations may be considered semi-historical or semi-legendary in nature.
Buddhism was founded by the Buddha, who was born as Siddhartha. He was the son of king Suddhodana, a leader of the Sakya clan of Kapilavastu (located in modern day Nepal). According to various narrations, Maya gave birth to Siddhartha in a grove at Lumbini while en route to her natal home.
These narrations further say that some Brahmanas saw thirty-two auspicious marks (lakṣaṇas) of a great man or mahapurusha on the infant. It was believed that he could become a mahapurusha in two different ways – either a world conqueror or world renouncer. Suddhodana, wanting to ensure that his son does not become a renouncer, shielded him from the sorrows of the world, ensuring that he was surrounded by luxury and happiness alone. Siddhartha was later married to Yashodhara of the Koliya clan, and they have a son named Rahula.
According to the Pali texts, at the age of twenty nine, he encountered life-changing sights – an old person, a sick person, a corpse, and an ascetic. Siddhartha was deeply moved by these sights, which exposed him to the unavoidable realities of life. Hence, he renounced his royal life and became a wandering ascetic for six years, performing severe austerities.
Eventually, he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in Gaya (in Bihar) and came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One. He is also referred to as Tathagata – the one who has liberated himself from the cycle of birth and death.
The Buddha delivered his first sermon at a deer park near Banaras (Varanasi) to five of his disciples. This is referred to as dhammachakka-pavattana (the turning of the wheel of dhamma). In his sermon, the Buddha put forward a transformative path – a way of life that helps individuals to escape the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. At the core of his teachings are the four Noble Truths or Ariya-sachchani (Arya Satya) which are –
— The world is full of suffering (dukkha)
— Suffering arises from a desire (samudaya)
— Suffering can be overcome (nirodha)
— There is a path to achieve this – the Eight-fold Path or Atthanga-magga (Ashtanga Marga).
The Eight-fold Path consists of right action, right speech, right livelihood, right view, right effort, right intention, and right concentration and mindfulness.
Sabbam dukkham or 'everything is suffering' is one of the significant teachings of the Buddha. His teachings also focused on impermanence or anichcha, which has many facets. This concept can be elaborated this way – every being is a combination of experiences and consciousness. Therefore, the notion of a permanent and constant self arises out of ignorance. It is this concept that questions the existence of atman or soul.
Achieving nibbana (nirvana) is the final stage of life in Buddhist teachings. It is described as an experience one gains through the removal of desire, greed, aversion, and ultimately, the idea of the self. While there are various etymologies for the term 'nibbana', it can literally be translated as 'blowing out' or to 'escape from defilements'.
The term arahatta is also used for the same. It fundamentally refers to escaping the cycle of life, death, and rebirth. It must be noted here that nibbana is not equivalent to physical death in the conventional sense, rather it implies the end of suffering and rebirth. The term parinibbana is specifically used to refer to the death of the Buddha.
One cannot concur with the idea that Buddhism completely abolished social differences. While Buddhism is often viewed as a sect that fought social discrimination and worked for equality, the reality is more complex. Compared to Brahmanical tradition, Buddhism was inclusive and more accepting. However, a complete rejection of all social differences was never a part of Buddhist teachings or texts.
The Buddhist approach to varna can be analysed here. Unlike the description given in the Purushasukta, which looks at varna as a divinely ordained social order, Buddhism considered it as a man-made social order. The Anguttara Nikaya mentions that people from the four varnas – Khattiya (Kshatriya), Brāhmaṇa (Brahmana), Vessa (Vaishya), and Suddha (Shudra) – came into the fold of Buddhism. But the hierarchy was reordered, placing Kshatriya before Brahmana, questioning the existing system.
Furthermore, one can also look into the different ways in which the term Brahmana has been used in Buddhist texts. It is denoted as a social category that is frequently criticised. As Upinder Singh observes, it is interesting that despite all the criticism, the Pali texts are flamboyant in describing the episodes of influential Brahmanas accepting Buddhist teachings. The term is also used to refer to someone who has attained wisdom; Buddha is also addressed as Brahmana in some texts.
The Buddha's dream of four birds of different types and colours flying in from four directions and sitting at his feet is often interpreted as symbolically showing that all varnas were part of Buddhism. Buddha also stated that anyone who joins the Sangha or the Buddhist monastic order becomes a vevanniyanti – one who is devoid of varna.
However, it is interesting to observe that Brahmanas and Kshtatriyas were more in number in the monastic order. Uma Chakravarti, in her work The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism, observes that several monks belonged to the upper class. While several prominent bhikkhus came from Brahmana and Kshatriya varnas, notable exceptions were there such as Upali – one of the most significant bhikkhus who belonged to a barber community.
Although Buddhism didn't entirely disregard birth and family in many instances, it placed greater emphasis on one's actions. The Buddha has stated that one should be judged by their behaviour, not by their origin. Further, he has stated that a saint can be born in any family, just as fire can emerge from any wood. One becomes a Brahmana (wise person) not by birth, but by one's actions. Though the Kshatriyas are placed above Brahmins in the varna order, the one who attained nibbana stands above everyone.
But Buddhism was not entirely devoid of the notion of social hierarchy. The Vinaya Pitaka categorises certain occupations as being of higher and lower status. While professions like farming, trade, accounting, and writing are given high status, leather making, pottery, weaving and so on are the low ones.
Buddhism opened up a significant space for the laity to embrace spirituality and choose their path of worship. The material milieu of the sixth century BCE saw the emergence of affluent groups, such as merchants and landowners. As the ritual privileges of the Brahmanical tradition, accessible only to certain social groups, started losing popularity, the new affluent groups gravitated towards sects like Buddhism that provided a code of conduct and ways to attain salvation, irrespective of social origins.
In what ways did Buddhism reflect and respond to the social stratification of the 6th century in India?
To what extent is the concept of nibbāna a rejection of material and metaphysical permanence?
How do the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path collectively address both individual suffering and societal ethics?
How reliable are the Pali Canon and other Buddhist texts in reconstructing the historical life of the Buddha, given their hagiographic nature?
What do textual shifts in the use of the term Brāhmaṇa reveal about Buddhism's evolving relationship with the Brahmanical tradition?
(Sreekala M V is an Assistant Professor at the Department of History, GITAM (Deemed to be University, Bengaluru.)
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