Rocks Date Onset Of Modern Plate Tectonics To 2 Billion Years
When plate tectonics first emerged on Earth is still debated. Some models suggest that Earth at first possessed a single protoplate covering the entire planet. This protoplate eventually broke open, the fragments forming tectonic plates. Other models suggest plate tectonics may have evolved gradually over billions of years.
A new study, Xiaoli Li and colleagues from the Earth and Space Sciences Department, Peking University, published evidence from the petrologic record suggesting that the modern style plate tectonics begun in the Paleoproterozoic — over 1.6 billion years ago.
The team analyzed eclogites from the Belomorian Province in Baltica. Eclogite is a metamorphic rock containing red almandine-pyrope garnet hosted in a matrix of green omphacite (a sodium-rich pyroxene). Eclogites typically results from high to ultrahigh pressure metamorphism of basaltic lava at low thermal gradients as it is subducted to the lower crust to upper mantle depths in a subduction zone. Subduction zones, where one tectonic plate slides beneath another plate, are a key element of modern plate tectonics.
Radiometric dating of the rocks revealed an age around 2 and 1.8 billion years ago, making them the oldest known subduction eclogites. The protolith, the original lava rock, is even older with an age ranging between 2.7 and 2.5 billion years.
The eclogite from Baltica shows some chemical similarities to 'modern' eclogite, formed just 65 million years ago, from the Himalayas. The Himalaya orogen formed when the former ocean between Asia and India was subducted, and remains of oceanic crust and continental fragments were uplifted by the collision. The authors suggest that in a similar way the eclogite from Baltica demonstrates the existence of a mountain range, comparable to the Himalaya range, on the supercontinent Columbia over two billion years ago.
Plate tectonics has, so far, only been observed on Earth, and may be essential to making a world hospitable for life by constantly remixing and renewing the outer layers of the planet. The new results, together with previous research, suggests that something happened around 3.8 to 2 billion years ago, with Earth switching from a single plate towards plate tectonics and changing its geological evolution forever.
The study,"Orosirian cold eclogite from Baltica marks the onset of modern plate tectonics," was published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
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Yahoo
2 hours ago
- Yahoo
When it comes to auroras, pink is the new white, astronaut says
When you buy through links on our articles, Future and its syndication partners may earn a commission. With the arrival of a visiting crew still delayed, science and maintenance work on board the International Space Station continued to fill the Expedition 73 crew's week, along with time for Earth observations and an interview for a podcast. Is it a green aurora with pink stripes, or a white aurora with green stripes? That, apparently, became the question on the International Space Station, at least for Expedition 73 flight engineer and NASA astronaut Anne McClain. "So, when I took this aurora [video], at first I thought that my settings were not correct because the aurora appeared white. I thought maybe the ISO was off, or I picked the wrong lens. Turns out, what I thought was white is actually light pink, and this led me down a path of learning," wrote McClain on Tuesday (June 17) in a social media update from orbit. As McClain found out, the color of aurora depends on several different factors, including the molecule hitting Earth's atmosphere, the nature of the impact itself, the density of the atmosphere at the point the collision occurs and the altitude of the impact. "Green is the most common aurora color, and it occurs when the electrons hit oxygen molecules between 60-150 miles [100-240 kilometers] altitude," wrote McClain. "If the solar particles hit oxygen but at a higher altitude, above 150 miles [240 kilometers], the resultant color is red. This only happens under intense solar storm activity because of the lower density of atomic oxygen at higher altitudes." And as McClain discovered, the aurora she recorded "was very pink-hued!" Among the research that was conducted aboard the space station this week was: REALM — Expedition 73 flight engineer and NASA astronaut Jonny Kim installed tags around the space station as part of the RFID-Enabled Autonomous Logistics Management demonstration. REALM uses a free-flying robot named Astrobee to track tagged equipment and cargo, potentially making it quicker and easier for crew members to find the items they need when they need them. Bio-Monitor — Kim also spent two days this week continuing a test with a Canadian-built vest that enables data collection about the physiological status of the wearer, including heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. Kim assessed the comfort of the apparatus during the 48 hours he wore it. Ring Sheared Drop — Fellow NASA astronaut and flight engineer Nichole Ayers continued her work from last week by changing out protein samples and adding new test cells to an experiment testing surface tension as a way to contain liquids and observe proteins without the liquid making contact with the containers' otherwise solid walls. Sergey Ryzhikov and Alexey Zubritskiy, flight engineers with the Russian space agency Roscosmos, used acoustic sensors affixed to their necks as part of a respiratory study based on the sounds they make when exhaling. The crew also devoted time to maintaining the space station's systems, including: Window inspections — Working inside the U.S. Laboratory "Destiny," McClain examined and photo-documented the condition of each of the module's windows. Later, she did the same inside the station's Cupola, inspecting each of its seven windows. Expedition 73 commander Takuya Onishi also worked on windows, but inside JAXA's (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) Kibo module, including the glass portholes in the Electrostatic Levitation Furnace, which is used to expose suspended samples to high temperatures. Cranks, handles and seals — Onishi spent part of this week cleaning the seals on the hatches between each of the U.S. operating segment modules, as well as removing dirt and dust from the handles on each hatch. Meetings — Onishi, McClain, Ayers and Kim spoke with Joe Acaba, chief of NASA's astronaut office, as well as their expedition's lead flight director to go over their upcoming activites and plans for the station. Ryzhikov and Zubritskiy also searched the Zvezda service module for additional stowage space. Together with Kirill Peskov, the three Russian cosmonauts also worked on cleaning and caring for two Orlan spacesuits to be used on future spacewalks. On Tuesday (June 17), Ayers took part in a podcast interview for the U.S. Air Force, Academy Association of Graduates. A newly promoted lieutenant colonel in the Air Force, Ayers described seeing Earth for the first time in space. "It was one of the most amazing things I have ever seen," she said. 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Axiom Space's Ax-4 commander Peggy Whitson, a retired NASA astronaut, remains ready to launch with ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla, ESA (European Space Agency) project astronaut Sławosz Uznański-Wiśniewski of Poland and Tibor Kapu of Hungary. As of Friday (June 20), there are 7 people aboard the International Space Station: commander Takuya Onishi of JAXA, Anne McClain, Nichole Ayers and Jonny Kim of NASA and Kirill Peskov, Sergey Ryzhikov and Alexey Zubritsky of Roscosmos, all flight engineers. There are two docked crew spacecraft: SpaceX's Dragon "Endurance" attached to the forward port of the Harmony module, and Roscosmos' Soyuz MS-27 attached to the Earth-facing port of the Prichal node. There are also two docked cargo spacecraft: Roscosmos' Progess MS-29 (90P) attached to the space-facing port of the Poisk module and Progress MS-30 (91P) attached to the aft port of the Zvezda service module. 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Refinery29
3 hours ago
- Refinery29
Your Horoscope This Week: 22nd To 28th June
We've made it to the last full week of June, and with it comes the first full week of Cancer Season: a time of emotional reset, intuitive deepening, and sacred softness. The previous week may have felt turbulent due to Jupiter squaring both Saturn and Neptune, and the aftershocks are still rippling through our psyches. But this week, things quiet down just enough for us to reflect, repair, and reset. Cancer energy invites us to come home to ourselves, to slow our pace, listen more intently, and tend to what really matters. We're now entering the dark-of-the-moon phase, as we approach the Cancer New Moon on 25th June. These days leading up to the New Moon may feel heavy or emotionally intense, not because something is wrong, but because our shadows are surfacing, asking to be seen. Especially in the United States which is a Cancer Sun nation (born 4th July), this lunar phase activates collective emotional memory and national reckoning. Whether it's unhealed ancestral wounds, environmental trauma, or systemic injustice, the Cancer New Moon doesn't let us look away, but it does remind us we can choose to care more deeply, and act more intentionally. Cancer's wisdom is this: you can heal what you're willing to feel. So as the New Moon arrives, give yourself permission to rest, to cry, to dream. Tune out the distractions and tune into your inner knowing. What are you craving emotionally? What would help you feel more safe, more seen, more whole? The 10 days following the New Moon are ideal for setting intentions: not just for yourself, but for the world. Whether it's through prayer, protest, meditation, or boundaries, this lunation asks us to practice mutual care with each other and the Earth. With Uranus in the final degrees of Taurus, the Earth is speaking to us loud and clear: give back to what has always given to you. Then, on 26th June, Mercury, the planet of communication, enters fiery Leo, sparking bolder conversations and unapologetic expression. This energy, coming right after the tender Cancer New Moon, gives us the courage to say what needs to be said, whether it's to a loved one, to an audience, or to ourselves. Mercury in Leo is dramatic, yes, but it's also brave. Just be mindful not to speak over others in the process. All zodiac signs will feel more passionate, more ready to stand for something: just remember to stay open to listening, too. The medicine of this week is gentle truth-telling. Tell the truth with tenderness, and let it liberate you. Aries, this week asks you to slow down and tend to your inner world. The Cancer Sun is lighting up your home, roots, and emotional foundation, and with the New Moon in this sector on 25th June, it's time to consider what 'home' really means to you. Have you been craving a deeper sense of safety or belonging? Maybe it's time to clear your physical space, set firmer emotional boundaries, or even imagine new chapters of where and how you want to live. The days before the New Moon may stir up old family dynamics or unresolved emotional patterns. Rather than pushing through, pause and nurture what's asking to be healed. This is a beautiful week to write intentions for what kind of family, chosen or biological, you want to build and sustain in the next six months. Once Mercury enters Leo on the 26th, your creativity and passion come roaring back online. This transit activates your sector of fun, romance, and fertility, so don't be surprised if you feel more flirtatious, inspired, or ready to share your talents with the world. Mercury in Leo brings bold ideas and outspoken joy, especially after such an introspective New Moon. You may find yourself making declarations of love, launching a creative project, or simply reminding yourself that life is meant to be enjoyed. Just make sure you're not seeking external validation too heavily — the real gold comes when your joy radiates from within. This week, balancing your inner peace with expressive passion is your magic key. Taurus Sun & Rising: Taurus, the Cancer Sun is activating your sector of communication, curiosity, and learning, and the Cancer New Moon on 25th June is here to help you refine your inner and outer voice. The days leading up to the New Moon may feel foggy or introverted — that's the dark-of-the-moon phase working its shadow magic. Use this time to reflect on what kinds of conversations you're no longer interested in having, and which messages or ideas you want to give more energy to moving forward. After the New Moon strikes, you'll feel clearer and more intentional. This is a great week to begin journaling again, pitch an idea you've been sitting on, or reconnect with your writing practice in a more soulful and structured way. Once Mercury enters Leo on the 26th, your attention shifts to home and emotional security. This part of your chart rules your relationship with comfort, family, and ancestry, and Mercury here may bring both powerful realisations and important conversations with loved ones. You might feel called to express what you need to feel safe, whether it's physical space, emotional honesty, or simply a reset in your routine. Leo energy adds fire and flair to your inner life, so don't be surprised if you're suddenly inspired to redecorate your home or initiate a vulnerable but healing family dialogue. Just be mindful not to bulldoze others with your perspective… the loudest voice isn't always the most grounded. Speak from the heart, not from the ego. Gemini Sun & Rising: Gemini, the Cancer Sun is activating your sector of income, values, and self-worth, making this the perfect time to recenter your relationship with money and stability. The Cancer New Moon on the 25th helps you gently but powerfully rewrite your money story. Before the new moon strikes, the dark-of-the-moon phase could bring up insecurities about how you've been managing your finances or your sense of value in relationships and career. Use this time to pause, reflect, and reset. Post-new moon, you'll feel energised to cultivate sustainable habits, whether it's finally setting that budget, asking for the rate you deserve, or launching a product or offer aligned with your gifts. Slow and steady wins this financial race. Once Mercury enters Leo on the 26th, your sector of communication lights up with flair and boldness. You may find yourself speaking your mind with greater conviction — and charm. Whether you're promoting a new idea, defending a cause, or simply flirting your way through summer, your words will have magnetism. Just make sure your need to be understood doesn't overshadow your ability to listen. Mercury in Leo wants the mic, but true confidence is quiet. Share your truth, and be just as curious about others' truths too. Cancer, this is your week to come home to yourself. The Sun is now in your sign, and the Cancer New Moon on 25th June is your cosmic rebirth moment. In the days leading up to it, the shadows of self-doubt or emotional overwhelm might surface, especially if you've been overextending yourself. But this is just the cocoon phase before your next butterfly moment. New moons are cosmic reset buttons, and this one is urging you to prioritise rest, nourishment, and radical self-love. Cancel that call. Book the massage. Cry if you need to. You're shedding skins and remembering your power. The second half of 2025 will mirror how intentionally you treat yourself now. Once Mercury enters Leo on the 26th, your attention may shift toward money and security. You might suddenly feel more motivated to monetise your ideas, share your talents more boldly, or raise your rates. Mercury in Leo in your sector of income wants you to think big and shine bright. You don't have to play it small to stay safe. Just be sure your spending matches your intentions, because it's easy to impulse splurge under this influence. Let confidence, not comparison, guide your financial choices. Leo Sun & Rising: Leo, the Cancer Sun is now in your spirituality and healing sector, and the Cancer New Moon on the 25th is encouraging you to slow all the way down and tend to your inner world. This is your annual 'soul bath', a time to take inventory of what you've been suppressing or avoiding emotionally. The days leading up to the new moon may feel raw, dreamy, and a little nostalgic. Let it all flow. You don't need to solve everything; you just need to feel it. Once the new moon hits, give yourself permission to start a new emotional cycle, one where peace, softness, and divine trust take the lead. Prioritise alone time and listen to the whispers of your spirit. Then, it's showtime: Mercury enters your sign on the 26th (for an extended stay due to Mercury's upcoming retrograde), and your voice becomes even more magnetic. This is your cue to speak your truth, like fellow Leo Doechii, who recently took the mic at the BET Awards to call out oppression and uplift collective liberation. You may feel inspired to do the same in your way, whether it's through art, conversation, or activism. Your throat chakra is wide open now, so don't hold back. Just make sure your fire is guided by purpose, not ego. When Leo speaks with heart, the world listens. Virgo Sun & Rising: Virgo, Cancer Season soothes your community and future vision sector, and the New Moon in Cancer on 25th June invites you to reimagine what kind of support system and collaborative spaces you want to build. In the days leading up to the new moon, you may feel more introverted or emotionally reflective, even if you're usually the one checking in on others. Let yourself retreat and pour into your own cup. Once the new moon strikes, it's time to set intentions around community care, social activism, digital presence, and long-term goals. Who are you becoming, and who do you want beside you as you evolve? Choose your collaborators with intention. When Mercury enters Leo on the 26th, your spiritual and subconscious realm lights up until September. This is a transit that can bring clarity through journaling, dreams, and solitude. You may feel more comfortable being vulnerable and expressing what's usually hidden — like grief, fear, or longing. Mercury in Leo says it's safe to let your healing be seen, and even celebrated. You're allowed to ask for help and still be strong. This is a powerful week to begin therapy, confide in a trusted friend, or start a reflective creative project. Honor your progress, and trust that your vulnerability is your brilliance. Illustrated by Wenjing Yang. Libra Sun & Rising: Libra, the Sun's presence in Cancer activates your career and public reputation zone, and the Cancer New Moon on 25th June is your annual invitation to reset your relationship with ambition. Before the new moon, you may feel emotional or uncertain about your path — and that's okay. You're releasing past definitions of success that no longer resonate. The new moon encourages you to clarify what success feels like to you now, not what the world told you to want. This is a potent week to start fresh with a new work project, launch a brand, or simply affirm your worth without needing external validation. You've already earned your seat at the table. Then on the 26th, Mercury enters Leo, lighting up your friendship and community zone. Your inbox might light up, invitations may roll in, and your voice will carry extra influence in your group chats and social platforms. This is a great time to pitch ideas, host events, or share a message with the collective. Just be mindful not to overtalk or overshare, as Mercury in Leo can get dramatic. Lead with sincerity, and others will naturally gravitate toward your vibe. You're becoming a louder (and prouder) version of your future self. Scorpio Sun & Rising: Scorpio, Cancer Season is now activating your expansion, travel, and higher learning sector, and the Cancer New Moon on 25th June is a beautiful portal for planting new seeds when it comes to your education, travel or publishing goals, or spiritual growth. The days before the new moon might feel heavy or filled with questions about the state of the world — and your place in it. Trust that those feelings are preparing you to shed outdated philosophies and limiting beliefs. This is a wonderful week to plan a future trip, take a leap with a big idea, or apply to something that's been calling your name. Let faith and curiosity lead. When Mercury enters Leo on 26th June, it activates your career and legacy sector, giving you the green light to speak up and be seen. If you've been hesitant about putting yourself out there, whether online or IRL, this is your cosmic push to take the stage. You're done dimming your shine. Mercury in Leo helps you craft your message with flair; just make sure it's rooted in authenticity. You don't have to perform to be respected. Show up as you are, and you'll attract the opportunities that match your truth. Sagittarius Sun & Rising: Sagittarius, Cancer Season is here to help you deepen intimacy and heal emotionally. The New Moon in Cancer on 25th June activates your soulmate, merging, and transformation sector, making this one of the most potent times of the year to release fear, face emotional truths, and open yourself to deeper love. In the days leading up to the new moon, you might feel extra sensitive… let it all flow. It's your soul shedding armour that's no longer needed. Set intentions around the type of intimacy, sexual healing, and soul-merging partnerships you want to attract or cultivate these next six months. And don't forget: merging with someone else doesn't mean losing yourself. When Mercury enters your fellow Fire sign of Leo on 26th June, it lights up your expansion and travel zone. This is your sign to speak more boldly about your beliefs, write the book, teach the course, or book the flight. You'll feel like telling your story with more fire — and people will listen. Mercury in Leo boosts your confidence, but just make sure you're also listening. The best kind of leadership now is reciprocal and heart-centred. Share what lights you up and be open to perspectives that challenge and inspire your evolution. Capricorn, Cancer Season shines a light on your partnership and relationship zone, and the Cancer New Moon on 25th June offers you a sweet reset in how you connect with others. 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Aquarius Sun & Rising: Aquarius, welcome to your annual wellness and routine reboot. The Cancer New Moon on 25th June highlights your health, work, and lifestyle sector, encouraging you to make sustainable changes that bring more flow and gentleness into your day-to-day life. Before the new moon, you may notice where you've been overextending or running on empty. This is your cue to rest. Post-new moon, take small but intentional steps: revamp your sleep habits, drink more water, reorganise your workspace, or say no to draining obligations. It's the little shifts that change your life the most now. When Mercury enters Leo on 26th June, your partnership sector lights up. This is a great week to speak your truth in relationships, both romantic and platonic, and be clear about your expectations and desires. Mercury in Leo can bring bold declarations of love or new levels of clarity in your connections. It's not about drama, though. It's about taking up space with your voice and inviting others to meet you in your fullness. You're ready to co-create something powerful… just be willing to listen as much as you speak. Pisces Sun & Rising: Pisces, the main energy of this week is the Cancer New Moon on 25th June, which opens a dreamy, nurturing portal in your creativity, joy, and true love zone. The days leading up to the new moon may feel emotional or creatively blocked, but that's just a sign that your soul is prepping for a soft reset. Use this lunation to set intentions around pleasure, romance, play, and creative expression. Let yourself feel giddy about life again. Whether you want to start a new relationship, a new art piece, or a new baby (literally or metaphorically), the cosmos say: it's time. Then on 26th June, Mercury, the planet of communication, enters Leo, activating your wellness and work sector. You'll start to feel more focused on optimising your daily rituals and communicating your needs more effectively. This is a great time to advocate for yourself at work, rework your schedule to reflect your natural energy cycles, or get more vocal about the support you need. Just be mindful not to take on too much at once… Mercury in Leo can make you feel invincible, but pacing yourself will serve you better in the long run. Your power this week is in doing less, but with more intention.
Yahoo
13 hours ago
- Yahoo
Elon Musk promises more risky launches after sixth Starship failure
When you buy through links on our articles, Future and its syndication partners may earn a commission. This article was originally published at The Conversation. The publication contributed the article to Expert Voices: Op-Ed & Insights. This was the ninth test flight for the rocket, and the third catastrophic failure in a row, just this year. Is this what we should expect from the very ship some are counting on to take humans further than we've ever been in the solar system? Or does this failure point to deeper concerns within the broader program? A decade of development The Starship program from Elon Musk's space technology company, SpaceX, has been in development for more than a decade now and has undergone many iterations in its overall design and goals. The Starship concept is based upon the SpaceX Raptor engines to be used in a multistage system. In a multistage rocket system, there are often two or three separate blocks with their own engine and fuel reserves. These are particularly important for leaving Earth's orbit and travelling to the Moon, Mars and beyond. With Starship, the key factor is the ability to land and reuse vast amounts of the rocket stages again and again. The company's Falcon 9 vehicles, which used this model, were fantastically successful. Initial tests of Starship began in 2018 with two low-altitude flights showing early success. Subsequent flights have faced numerous challenges with now four complete failures, two partial failures and three successes overall. Just two days ago, during the latest failed attempt, I watched alongside more than 200 other space industry experts at the Australian Space Summit in Sydney. Broadcast live on a giant screen, the launch generated an excited buzz – which soon turned to reserved murmurs. Of course, designing and launching rockets is hard, and failures are to be expected. However, a third catastrophic failure within six months demands a pause for reflection. On this particular test flight, as Starship positioned itself for atmospheric re-entry, one of its 13 engines failed to ignite. Shortly after, a booster appeared to explode, leading to a complete loss of control. The rocket ultimately broke apart over the Indian Ocean, which tonnes of debris will now call home. Polluting Earth in pursuit of space We don't know the exact financial cost of each test flight. But Musk has previously said it is about US$50–100 million. The exact environmental cost of the Starship program – and its repeated failures – is even harder to quantify. For example, a failed test flight in 2023 left the town of Port Isabel, Texas, which is located beside the launch site, shaking and covered in a thick cloud of dirt. Debris from the exploded rocket smashed cars. Residents told the New York Times they were terrified. They also had to clean up the mess from the flight. Then, in September 2024, SpaceX was fined by the US Environmental Protection Agency and the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality for 14 separate incidents since 2022 where the launch facilities discharged polluted water into Texas waterways. Musk denied these claims. That same month, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) proposed a fine of US$633,009 in civil penalties should be issued to SpaceX. This was on the grounds of using an unapproved launch control room and other violations during 2023. Musk denied these claims too and threatened to countersue the FAA for 'regulatory overreach'. It's unclear if this suit was ever filed. Two other failed launches in January and March this year also rained rocket debris over the Caribbean, and disrupted hundreds of commercial flights, including 80 which needed to be diverted and more than 400 requiring delayed takeoff to ensure they were entering safe air space. Success of different space programs Until last year, the FAA allowed SpaceX to try up to five Starship launches a year. This month, the figure was increased to 25. A lot can go wrong during a launch of a vehicle to space. And there is a long way to go until we can properly judge whether Starship successfully meets its mission goals. We can, however, look at past programs to understand typical success rates seen across different rocketry programs. The Saturn V rocket, the workhorse of the Apollo era, had a total of 13 launches, with only one partial failure. It underwent three full ground tests before flight. SpaceX's own Falcon 9 rocket, has had more than 478 successful launches, only two in flight failures, one partial failure and one pre-flight destruction. The Antares rocket, by Orbital Sciences Corporation (later Orbital ATK and Northrop Grumman) launched a total of 18 times, with one failure. The Soyuz rocket, originally a Soviet expendable carrier rocket designed in the 1960s, launched a total of 32 times, with two failures. RELATED STORIES — 'Starship in space': See amazing photos from SpaceX megarocket's Flight 9 test mission —FAA requires SpaceX to investigate Starship Flight 9 mishap — SpaceX reveals why its Starship Flight 8 Ship exploded, failure traced to 'flash' in rocket's engines No sign of caution Of course, we can't fairly compare all other rockets with the Starship. Its goals are certainly novel as a reusable heavy-class rocket. But this latest failure does raise some questions. Will the Starship program ever see success – and if so when? And what are the limits of our tolerance as a society to the pollution of Earth in the pursuit of the goal to space? For a rocketry program that's moving so fast, developing novel and complex technology, and experiencing several repeated failures, many people might expect caution from now on. Musk, however, has other plans. Shortly after the most recent Starship failure, he announced on X (formerly Twitter), that the next test flights would occur at a faster pace: one every three to four weeks. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
