Mystery Behind Antarctica Mountain Range Hidden For 500 Million Years Solved

Scientists have solved the mystery behind the mountain range buried under ice in East Antarctica for the last 500 million years. The mysterious and ancient Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains are similar in shape and scale to the Alps, but not visible due to being trapped beneath kilometres of ice.
First discovered by a Soviet expedition using seismic techniques in 1958, the Gamburtsev Mountains are buried beneath the highest point of the East Antarctic ice sheet. While most mountain ranges are eventually worn down by erosion or tectonic events, the Gamburtsev Mountains are preserved by a deep layer of ice, making it one of the best-preserved mountain belts on Earth.
Mountains are formed by the collision of two tectonic plates and continue to change over time. The Himalayas are the biggest example after the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate collided 50 million years ago. This range is rising even today, but Antarctica has been stable all this time, prompting the scientists to look for the secret behind it.
According to a study published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, the mountain range first came into existence 500 million years ago when the Gondwana supercontinent formed from colliding tectonic plates.
"The collision triggered the flow of hot, partly molten rock deep beneath the mountains," the authors wrote. "As the mountains continued to take shape, the crust thickened and heated, before becoming unstable and collapsing under their own weight." Other forces led the mountains to partially collapse as well.
To further ascertain their hypothesis, the researchers turned to zircon, a mineral that acts like a geological stopwatch. These tiny crystals can survive for billions of years and contain uranium, which decays at a known rate, allowing scientists to determine their age with precision.
These grains recorded peak mountain-building around 580 million years ago and the start of structural collapse by 500 million years ago.
While gathering rock samples from the mountain remains difficult due to the logistics of drilling through the ice, the model developed by scientists offers new predictions about future exploration.

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NDTV

2 days ago

• NDTV

How Israel Is Targetting Key Iranian Nuclear Scientists

Atlanta: At least 14 nuclear scientists are believed to be among those killed in Israel's Operation Rising Lion, launched on June 13, 2025, ostensibly to destroy or degrade Iran's nuclear program and military capabilities. Deliberately targeting scientists in this way aims to disrupt Iran's knowledge base and continuity in nuclear expertise. Among those assassinated were Mohammad Mehdi Tehranchi, a theoretical physicist and head of Iran's Islamic Azad University, and Fereydoun Abbasi-Davani, a nuclear engineer who led Iran's Atomic Energy Organization. Collectively, these experts in physics and engineering were potential successors to Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, widely regarded as the architect of the Iranian nuclear program, who was assassinated in a November 2020 attack many blame on Israel. As two political scientists writing a book about state targeting of scientists as a counterproliferation tool, we understand well that nuclear scientists have been targeted since the nuclear age began. We have gathered data on nearly 100 instances of what we call "scientist targeting" from 1944 through 2025. The most recent assassination campaign against Iranian scientists is different from many of the earlier episodes in a few key ways. Israel's recent attack targeted multiple nuclear experts and took place simultaneously with military force to destroy Iran's nuclear facilities, air defenses and energy infrastructure. Also, unlike previous covert operations, Israel immediately claimed responsibility for the assassinations. But our research indicates that targeting scientists may not be effective for counterproliferation. While removing individual expertise may delay nuclear acquisition, targeting alone is unlikely to destroy a program outright and could even increase a country's desire for nuclear weapons. Further, targeting scientists may trigger blowback given concerns regarding legality and morality. A policy with a long history Targeting nuclear scientists began during World War II when Allied and Soviet forces raced to capture Nazi scientists, degrade Adolf Hitler's ability to build a nuclear bomb and use their expertise to advance the US and Soviet nuclear programs. In our data set, we classified "targeting" as cases in which scientists were captured, threatened, injured or killed as nations tried to prevent adversaries from acquiring weapons of mass destruction. Over time, at least four countries have targeted scientists working on nine national nuclear programs. The United States and Israel have allegedly carried out the most attacks on nuclear scientists. But the United Kingdom and Soviet Union have also been behind such attacks. Meanwhile, scientists working for the Egyptian, Iranian and Iraqi nuclear programs have been the most frequent targets since 1950. Since 2007 and prior to the current Israeli operation, 10 scientists involved in the Iranian nuclear program were killed in attacks. Other countries' nationals have also been targeted: In 1980, Mossad, Israel's intelligence service, allegedly bombed Italian engineer Mario Fiorelli's home and his firm, SNIA Techint, as a warning to Europeans involved in the Iraqi nuclear project. Given this history, the fact that Israel attacked Iran's nuclear program is not itself surprising. Indeed, it has been a strategic goal of successive Israeli prime ministers to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons, and experts had been warning of the increased likelihood of an Israeli military operation since mid-2024, due to regional dynamics and Iranian nuclear development. By then, the balance of power in the Middle East had changed dramatically. Israel systematically degraded the leadership and infrastructure of Iranian proxies Hamas and Hezbollah. It later destroyed Iranian air defenses around Tehran and near key nuclear installations. The subsequent fall of Syria's Assad regime cost Tehran another long-standing ally. Together, these developments have significantly weakened Iran, leaving it vulnerable to external attack and stripped of its once-feared proxy network, which had been expected to retaliate on its behalf in the event of hostilities. With its proxy "axis of resistance" defanged and conventional military capacity degraded, Iranian leadership may have thought that expanding its enrichment capability was its best bet going forward. And in the months leading up to Israel's recent attack, Iran expanded its nuclear production capacity, moving beyond 60% uranium enrichment, a technical step just short of weapons-grade material. During Donald Trump's first term, the president withdrew the US from a multilateral nonproliferation agreement aimed at curbing Iran's nuclear program. After being reelected, Trump appeared to change tack by pursuing new diplomacy with Iran, but those talks have so far failed to deliver an agreement - and may be put on hold for the foreseeable future amid the war. Most recently, the International Atomic Energy Agency board of governors declared Iran in non-compliance with its nuclear-nonproliferation obligations. In response, Iran announced it was further expanding its enrichment capacity by adding advanced centrifuge technology and a third enrichment site. Even if the international community anticipated the broader attack on Iran, characteristics of the targeting itself are surprising. Historically, states have covertly targeted individual scientists. But the recent multiple-scientist attack occurred openly, with Israel taking responsibility, publicly indicating the attacks' purpose. Further, while it is not new for a country to use multiple counter-proliferation tools against an adversary over time, that Israel is using both preventive military force against infrastructure and targeting scientists at once is atypical. Additionally, such attacks against scientists are historically lower tech and low cost, with death or injury stemming from gunmen, car bombs or accidents. In fact, Abbasi - who was killed in the most recent attacks - survived a 2010 car bombing in Tehran. There are outliers, however, including the Fakhrizadeh assassination, which featured a remotely operated machine gun smuggled into Iranian territory. Israel's logic in going after scientists Why target nuclear scientists? In foreign policy, there are numerous tools available if one state aims to prevent another state from acquiring nuclear weapons. Alongside targeting scientists, there are sanctions, diplomacy, cyberattacks and military force. Targeting scientists may remove critical scientific expertise and impose costs that increase the difficulty of building nuclear weapons. Proponents argue that targeting these experts may undermine a state's efforts, deter it from continuing nuclear developments and signal to others the perils of supporting nuclear proliferation. Countries that target scientists therefore believe that doing so is an effective way to degrade an adversary's nuclear program. Indeed, the Israel Defense Forces described the most recent attacks as "a significant blow to the regime's ability to acquire weapons of mass destruction." Despite Israel's focus on scientists as sources of critical knowledge, there may be thousands more working inside Iran, calling into question the efficacy of targeting them. Further, there are legal, ethical and moral concerns over targeting scientists. Moreover, it is a risky option that may fail to disrupt an enemy nuclear program while sparking public outrage and calls for retaliation. This is especially the case if scientists, often regarded as civilians, are elevated as martyrs. Targeting campaigns may, as a result, reinforce domestic support for a government, which could then redouble efforts toward nuclear development. Regardless of whether targeting scientists is an effective counter-proliferation tool, it has been around since the start of the nuclear age - and will likely persist as part of the foreign policy toolkit for states aiming to prevent proliferation. In the case of the current Israeli conflict with Iran and its targeting of nuclear scientists, we expect the tactic to continue for the duration of the war and beyond. (Author: Jenna Jordan, Associate Professor of International Affairs, Georgia Institute of Technology and Rachel Whitlark, Associate Professor of International Affairs, Georgia Institute of Technology) (Disclaimer Statement: Rachel Whitlark is a nonresident senior fellow in the Forward Defense practice of the Atlantic Council's Scowcroft Center for Strategy and Security. Jenna Jordan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.)

First Post

3 days ago

• First Post

ISRO has been very successful; Subhanshu Shukla will carry the torch forward: Rakesh Sharma

April 3, 1984, marks a historic milestone in India's space journey. On this day, Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma of Indian Air Force, became the first Indian to travel to space, as he flew aboard the Soviet spacecraft Soyuz T-11 which was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. The mission crew also included two Russians, including spacecraft commander Yury Malyshev and flight engineer Gennadi Strekalov. After reaching the orbit, the trio docked with the Salyut 7 space station, where Sharma spent 7 days, 21 hours, and 40 minutes and conducted various scientific and technical experiments. During the course of the mission, Sharma participated in a televised conversation with the then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi. When she asked him, how does India look from space, he famously replied, 'Saare Jahan Se Achcha'—a phrase that has since become part of India's space folklore. Sharma returned to Earth, landing safely near the town of Arkalyk in northern Kazakhstan. On April 3, 1984, the Department of Posts commemorated this historic event by issuing a postage stamp and a First Day Cover. The stamp depicts the Soyuz T-11 spacecraft approaching the Salyut 7 space station, symbolizing the critical docking phase of the mission. Via a gazette notification dated May 7, 1985, the Government of India conferred its highest peacetime gallantry award, the 'Ashoka Chakra', on him. As Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla prepares for his international flight as part of Axiom-4 mission to become the second Indian to travel to space, Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma shares his views on India's quest for the stars. Excerpts: Q. How did it feel to be the first Indian to travel to space aboard Soyuz T-11 on April 3, 1984? A. Although I have been following manned space programme ever since Yuri Gagarin's space flight, I have to admit that I never dreamt of ever going to space, primarily because the Indian Space Research Organisation at that time never had a manned space programme. But when we learned, we in the Air Force, I mean, that Mrs. Gandhi had asked the Indian Air Force whether we would like to send one of our pilots to space, so Air Chief Marshal Latif, who was the chief of the air staff at that time, thankfully said yes. And then this long selection process started, at the end of which Air Commodore Ravish Malhotra and myself were selected to undergo training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmodrome Training Centre just outside Moscow at Star City. Q. How did your career as a fighter pilot prepare you for the rigors of spaceflight? A. Well, my career as a fighter pilot, most importantly, prepared me for the space flight because the qualification that was required from amongst the aspirants, the selection was made from amongst military pilots, fighter pilots who were test pilots. And so, I was one. So was Air Commodore Ravish Malhotra and quite a few others. And then a long series of medical tests started. So, in that sense, if I hadn't been in the Air Force, at least for that flight, I wouldn't have been qualified even to get selected. So that's how the Indian Air Force helped me to be one of the aspirants for selection. Q. Millions of Indians still fondly recall the moment when you famously described India as 'Saare Jahan Se Achha.' What are your own recollections of that historic moment? A. Well, my recollection of that particular event. I do remember that I was extremely nervous because one doesn't get to speak with one, our country's prime minister. We were never trained for that, never had the opportunity to do that and to then do it from space near Earth orbit at a time when I knew that the entire country would be following this. So that was discomforting, you know. So, I tried to remain focused on what she was asking. And that's how that interview went. So, I know later on, it has become quite a historic sort of a reply to her question. But that was because, I must tell you that our country truly looks beautiful from space. Q. Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla is all set to take forward your legacy as he goes to the International Space Station as part of the Axiom-4 team. How do you view India's advancements in Space Technology from 1984-2025? A. Group captain Subhanshu Shukla indeed is going to be carrying the torch forward. And I must say it's been 41 years and during this period, ISRO has been slowly, steadily and very, very successfully realising the vision that was given to it from stalwarts like Vikram Sarabhai and other worthies. Satish Dhawan and the various chairman of ISRO have been working towards that vision, which is to use satellite technology for the betterment of our nation, both economically as well as how the output of space would impact the lives of our countrymen. positively. So, in that sense, I must say that ISRO has very successfully realised those aims. Along with that, the science which ISRO has done has been also very commendable, whether you take missions to the moon or to Mars, which were also very successful and lately to the sun, that is the Aditya mission. So, a lot has happened and moving on towards man space programme, it is the logical next step and presently ISRO is working towards that end and I'm very confident that very shortly we will be having our own astronauts launching on our own launchers from our own space port and that will be something worth cheering about. Yes, and Subhanshu Shukla will share all the experience he is going to gain shortly on this Axiom 4 flight. And we are all looking forward to his flight and a safe return and further contributions towards the manned space programme of India. Q. You have been closely associated with the Gaganyaan Mission, which is scheduled for next year. How crucial is the mission for India's space programme? A. I think I have partially answered this question during my answer to the previous question of yours. So, this particular flight and the Gaganyaan mission thereafter is going to demonstrate and give us confidence in taking humans to near Earth orbit and returning them safely. And it would have proven the technology of space transportation towards near Earth orbit and back. And that is crucial for the establishment of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station, which is going to be set up years from now. And then that becomes the laboratory where we are going to be doing science, quite like what is presently being done at the International Space Station. So, all this experience. is going to benefit us and we know what the landscape is going to be like and what the state of art is required to be perfected before we embark on those important missions. Q. How do you view India's space journey today—especially Chandrayaan, Gaganyaan, and Aditya missions? A. Well, the missions you have mentioned, Chandrayaan, Gaganyaan and Aditya missions, I must say that they have been extremely successful as has been demonstrated and reported by the media. Now, the thing is that what stands out is the frugality with which India has achieved these missions on a shoestring budget. But the technology is absolutely indigenous. And on the very first attempt, we have managed to achieve success for these missions. So, we're going to look forward to many more such scientific missions. And one thing I'd like to highlight, and that is India's approach, which is that all the science data which we have collected already from Chandrayaan, Gaganyaan and we will be doing from Aditya is freely shared with other countries. So, we are not trying to keep it to ourselves. We are sharing all the data with all the other countries so that they also benefit, even though the Indian taxpayer is paying for these missions. But then that's who we are, and that is our cultural ethos. We believe that the world is one family. Q. What advice would you give to young Indians who dream of becoming astronauts? A. For young Indians who are dreaming to become astronauts, all I have to say is, when opportunity comes knocking on your door, just remember to open the door. And if you think that it's going to be extremely difficult for you to become an astronaut, just remember that things are never as difficult as they appear at first glance. So, just go for it. and make sure and there are many verticals with which you can be a researcher you can be an environmental engineer because there's a lot of activity that's going to happen in the medium term when we set up colonies initially on moon and later on, mars so don't miss the bus and all the best to all of you. Jai Hind.

The Hindu

3 days ago

• The Hindu

From The Hindu, June 19, 1975: Weather modification, new U.S. war weapon

New Delhi, June 18: Weather modification as a new weapon of war might have startling implications for the world, writes PTI's Science Correspondent. A new super weapon, mentioned by the Soviet Communist Party Chief, Mr. Brezhnev, in a speech last Friday, was subsequently identified by the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee's daily as a ghastly weather weapon developed by the United States. According to a Geneva report, the American and Soviet experts are now negotiating a possible ban on meteorological warfare. Military scientists have been developing techniques for dispersing fog, modifying cloud cover and lightning, handling hurricanes, and even producing rain or snow. Prof. Edith Brown Weiss of Princeton University recently wrote in Survival (published by the Institute of Strategic Studies, London) that weather weapons resulting from such research are on the 'horizon.' Prof. Weiss said that the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Defence Department has undertaken a worldwide climate modelling programme to detect modifications in climate and to predict the likely consequences. 'Attempts have been made to calculate the impact of introducing contaminants into the atmosphere and of depleting ozone', the Professor said. Ozone shields people against dangerous ultraviolet rays of the sun.